IMAGE 1: Walter Schirra and Tom Stafford ride atop Gemini VI becoming the fourth manned Gemini mission.
IMAGE 2: Robert Goddard, the father of rocketry, studies a section of his latest rocket motor.
IMAGE 3: Gemini VIII, in the sixth manned launch of the series, blasts off from Kennedy Space Center in Florida carrying Neil Armstrong and Robert Scott.
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IMAGE 1: Dr. Werner von Braun (far right) discusses the intricacies of rocket design with his colleagues at NASA.
VIDEO 1: Explorer 1 was the US' first successful satellite launching.
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IMAGE 1: The Soviet Union launched the world's first satellite called Sputnik.
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IMAGE 1: Luna 9, launched by the Soviets, was the first craft to soft-land on the lunar surface.
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IMAGE 1: The Soviet Union maintained several orbitting space stations like the Salyut 7.
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IMAGE 1: One of the space shuttles, silently waiting for its blast-off, sits on the pad at Kennedy Space Center.
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IMAGE 1: As Zond 7 made its way towards the moon, its onboard cameras caught this striking image of the Earth.
IMAGE 2: Perhaps, this is the future that the international community sees in the NASA space station venture.
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Air Force Major Leroy Gordon Cooper rode Mercury MA-9 on the fourth and final manned flight of the Mercury Project. Cooper's spacecraft, Faith 7, was launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida on May 15, 1963, by an Atlas rocket booster. Cooper completed 22 Earth orbits, 595,564 miles, for a total of 34 hours, 19 minutes and 49 seconds. This was a record for the American space program, exceeded only by two Soviet cosmonauts.
The long duration of Faith 7's flight allowed Cooper to perform more activities and scientific investigations than had been performed on all the other manned Mercury missions, suborbital and orbital, put together. During Cooper's "day in space" he exercised, slept, ate, took photographs and transmitted the first live television from a United States spacecraft. He also maneuvered the capsule manually, radioed several countries as he passed over them, and conducted experiments.
Cooper was able to conserve fuel, oxygen, electrical power and coolant water. There were no problems during the flight until the 19th orbit, when the automatic attitude control equipment malfunctioned. But Cooper was able to operate the spacecraft manually and experienced no difficulties during re-entry. He maneuvered Faith 7 so expertly that the spacecraft splashed down within 7,000 yards of the ship waiting for him in the Pacific Ocean.
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Jupiter C launched this 4.2kg thin, plastic sphere to study atmospheric density at various levels. The upper stages and payload separated prior to the first-stage burnout, and the spacecraft did not achieve orbit.
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Thor-Able I launched this 39.1kg spacecraft to measure the magnetic fields around the Earth or Moon. The third stage malfunctioned, but the little data returned indicated that the equatorial region about Earth has higher flux and higher energy radiation than was previously believed.
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txtj5
The payload of this spacecraft consisted of two independent spheres. One contained a magnetometer to map the Earth's magnetic field, the other was a 30-inch inflatable sphere intended for optical tracking. The second stage malfunctioned and the spacecraft did not achieve orbit.
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This 9.8kg magnesium alloy sphere was intended to measure solar-Earth heating processes which generate weather. A malfunction in a second-stage pressure valve prevented the spacecraft from achieving orbit.
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Juno II launched this 41.5kg spacecraft to measure the Earth's radiation balance. The power supply malfunctioned and Explorer was destroyed less than six seconds after liftoff.
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Juno II launched this 4.5kg thin, plastic inflatable sphere to study the density of the atmosphere at different levels. A premature fuel depletion in the first stage caused the upper stage to malfunction and the spacecraft did not achieve orbit.
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This mission was a suborbital test of the Mercury Capsule. The capsule was successfully recovered after the reentry test.
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This mission was a suborbital test of the Mercury Capsule to qualify the booster for use with the Mercury Test Program.
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This was a suborbital test of the Mercury Capsule to verify the escape system. The launch vehicle functioned perfectly but the escape rocket ignited several seconds too late.
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Atlas-Able 20 launched this 168.7kg Lunar Orbiter Probe. The payload shroud broke away after 45 seconds of flight and the spacecraft did not achieve orbit.
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txtj13
This was a suborbital test of the Mercury Capsule which included an escape system and biomedical tests with a monkey aboard. The test was designed to demonstrate high altitude abort at max g.
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txtj14
This was a suborbital test of the Mercury Capsule which included an escape system and biomedical tests with a monkey aboard.
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Juno II launched this 16kg spacecraft to analyze electron and proton radiation energies in a highly elliptical orbit. Telemetry was lost shortly after the first stage burnout and one of the upper stages failed to fire, preventing the spacecraft from achieving orbit.
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This was a suborbital launch vehicle development test with live first and third stages. The vehicle broke up after first-stage burnout.
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Thor-Delta launched this 75.3kg, 100-foot passive reflector sphere to be used in a series of communications experiments. During the coast period the attitude control jets on the second stage malfunctioned and the Echo A-10 failed to achieve orbit.
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This mission was a launch vehicle development test of the first complete Scout vehicle. Scout I achieved suborbital flight.
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Atlas 50 launched this suborbital test flight of the Mercury Capsule. The Atlas exploded 65 seconds after launch; Mercury failed to achieve orbit.
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Atlas-Able 80 launched 175.5kg Pioneer, a highly instrumented probe. Pioneer was intended to investigate the environment between the Earth and the Moon from lunar orbit. The second stage failed and Pioneer did not achieve orbit.
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This was a suborbital development test of the Scout launch vehicle. This second complete Scout reached an altitude of 3,500 miles.
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This was a suborbital test flight of the Mercury Capsule. The capsule failed to separate from the booster.
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txtj23
Scout 3 launched this 6.4kg sphere to study the density of the Earth's atmosphere. The second stage failed to ignite and the explorer did not achieve orbit.
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Atlas-Able 91 launched this 175.9 probe, intended to achieve lunar orbit. The purpose of the mission was to investigate the environment between the Earth and the Moon. The first stage of the launch vehicle failed and the vehicle exploded 70 seconds after launch.
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A Redstone rocket launched this unmanned Mercury spacecraft on a suborbital trajectory. It impacted 235 miles down range after achieving an altitude of 135 miles and a speed of almost 4,200 mph. The capsule was recovered.
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A Redstone rocket launched this 1315kg Mercury Capsule on a suborbital test flight. The mission included a biomedical test with a chimpanzee aboard.
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Atlas 67 launched this 1315kg Mercury Capsule for a suborbital test flight. The Atlas launch vehicle had been improved by adding an 8-inch wide stainless steel band to the upper part. The Mercury Capsule was recovered less than one hour after launch.
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Juno II launched this 33.6kg probe to investigate the shape of the ionosphere. Telemetry with the payload was lost and the third and fourth stages failed to ignite, preventing the explorer from achieving orbit.
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This was a suborbital test flight of the 1315kg Mercury Capsule. The escape rocket motor fired early and prior to capsule release.
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This was a suborbital test of the launch vehicle for Mercury to prepare for future manned flights.
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Atlas 100 launched what should have been an orbital test flight of the Mercury capsule. The inertial guidance system failed to pitch the vehicle over toward the horizon and the Range Safety Officer ordered the vehicle destroyed.
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This was a suborbital test flight of the launch vehicle to verify the ability of the escape and sequence systems to function properly at max g.
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txtj35
Juno II launched this explorer to investigate the configuration of the ionosphere. There was a malfunction in the second stage ignition system and the explorer failed to achieve orbit.
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Scout 5 launched this 84.8kg satellite in an attempt to evaluate the launch vehicle. The satellite was intended to investigate micrometeoroid impact and penetration. The third stage failed to ignite and the satellite failed to achieve orbit.
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Liberty Bell 7 was the second manned suborbital flight of a Mercury capsule. An 83-foot Redstone rocket launched Virgil I. Grissom into the fringes of space. The Liberty Bell achieved a speed of 5,280mph and was weightless for about five minutes. Grissom maneuvered the capsule by manual controls. After achieving maximum altitude the flight of the Liberty Bell was slowed by retro rockets and the capsule's descent was slowed by a drogue parachute. When the capsule impacted the Atlantic ocean the escape hatch opened prematurely. Grissom exited and watched the Liberty Bell sink as a helicopter approached to pluck him from the ocean. The duration of Grissom's flight was 15 minutes and 37 seconds.
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txtj38
Atlas 88 launched an orbital test of a Mercury capsule to verify systems and the ability to return a capsule to a predetermined recovery area after one orbit. All the mission's objectives were met.
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txtj39
This was a test of the launch vehicle Scout and a scientific Geoprobe. The spacecraft reached a suborbital altitude of 4,261 miles and provided electron density measurements.
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This was a suborbital launch vehicle development test of the S-1 booster propulsion system and a verification of the structural design and aerodynamics of the entire vehicle.
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Launched by a Blue Scout booster, this 97.1kg satellite failed to achieve orbit when the first stage exploded 26 seconds after liftoff. A Range Safety Officer destroyed the other three stages 44 seconds after launch. The satellite was meant to participate in an orbital test of the Mercury Tracking Network.
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On November 29, an Atlas rocket launched the 1315.4kg Mercury MA-5 into the final orbital test flight of all the Mercury systems, prior to a manned orbital mission. Enos, a chimpanzee trained to perform various psychomotor tests during the flight, made two successful orbits of the Earth. NASA had planned a three-orbit trip, but trouble in the reaction jets of the capsule caused them to cut the flight short to save both chimpanzee and capsule. To bring the capsule back into the atmosphere, retro-rockets had to slow the craft from an amazing 17,500mph to 1,350mph. Parachutes slowed the capsule's descent further and Mercury MA-5 and Enos landed safely in the Atlantic Ocean. Scientists were happy to find that the effects of weightlessness and the stresses of the flight had not effected Enos's performance of the psychomotor tests.
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txtj43
The 256kg satellite was placed into suborbital flight by a Thor 338 booster. The satellite's canister opened and ejected successfully, but, 135ft sphere ruptured making transmission impossible.
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txtj44
This suborbital flight was to test the development of the Scout 8 booster, and its reentry capabilities. However, the desired speed was not achieved.
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txtj45
This mission served as a suborbital flight test of a geoprobe. The craft provided an electron density measurements at an altitude of 3,910 miles.
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txtj46
Primarily, this mission served as a flight-test for the Saturn 1 booster. However, at an altitude of 65 miles, 95 tons of water was released from the rocket's upper stages into the upper atmosphere to observe the effects. This experiment was called Project High Water.
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txtj47
A flight test of the Atlas Centaur design, the Centaur section exploded before separation.
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txtj48
Designed to be a Venus flyby, the 202.8kg probe was destroyed 290 seconds after launch by the Range Safety Officer as the Atlas-Agena B booster veered off course.
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txtj49
This was a flight test of the Scout 13 booster with a reentry of 28,000 fps. But, the desired speed was not achieved because of late third stage ignition.
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txtj50
This mission was a suborbital launch vehicle development test. At an altitude of 90 miles, the upper stages of the rocket released 95 tons of water in the seconds Project High Water experiment.
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txtj51
A flight test of the developing Saturn systems, a programmed in-flight cutoff of one of the eight engines demonstrated the ability of the propellant utilization system.
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txtj52
This 217.6kg satellite was launched into a suborbital flight by a Scout 19 rocket. It was an Atomic Energy Commission reactor mockup which tested its ability to withstand reentry as well as the Scout's.
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txtj53
The 99.8kg satellite, carried aloft by a Scout 21, was a Cambridge Research Lab geophysics experiment.
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txtj54
Launched by a Scout 22, the mission was to be a flight test of ablation materials at reentry speed. But, the launch vehicle failed to place the craft into suborbital flight.
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txtj55
This mission served as a suborbital Apollo launch vehicle test and booster requalification test with a dummy payload.
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txtj56
The 54.7kg satellite was meant to provide data on the ionosphere and conduct laser and Doppler shift geodetic tracking experiments. The Delta 24 booster's third stage malfunctioned destroying the probe.
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txtj57
Launched by an Atlas-Antares, the 1,995.8kg satellite was a reentry test to study the heating environment of bodies entering the atmosphere at high speeds.
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txtj58
Launched by Little Joe II, this liftoff served as a test of the Apollo spacecraft's atmospheric abort capabilities.
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txtj59
This launch served as a test flight of the Atlas-Centaur booster design studying performance and guidance evaluation.
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txtj60
A suborbital flight launched by a Scout 28 booster, this mission tested the performance of an ion engine in space. The demonstration confirmed that high prevalence ion beams could be neutralized in space.
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txtj61
A Scout 29 booster launched a mockup of the Apollo spacecraft in a demonstration of the craft's ability to withstand reentry conditions at 27,950fps.
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txtj62
Launched by Little Joe II, this mission tested the Apollo emergency detection systems at abort altitude. The mockup had a mass of 42,593kg.
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txtj63
Launched by a Titan II 2 booster into a suborbital flight, a 3133.9kg reentry Gemini mockup demonstrated the structural integrity of the module during maximum heating rate reentry and demonstrated variable lift on the reentry module.
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txtj64
Meant to be a vehicle development test for the Atlas-Centaur, the Atlas stage failed 4 seconds after liftoff.
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txtj65
A Delta 30 booster propelled this 38.5kg Intelsat satellite into orbit. The satellite became the first one operational for the Comsat Corp. It provided commercial trans-Atlantic communications.
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txtj66
Meant to be a demonstration of the Apollo abort capability, the test failed because the Little Joe II booster did not place the craft at the proper altitude.
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txtj67
An Atlas-Antares rocket propelled the 2,005.8kg craft in the second reentry test to study the heating environment of a body reentering the atmosphere at high speeds.
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txtj68
A flight test for the Scout 37 vehicle, the booster lifted the 20kg US Army Secor geodetic satellite into orbit.
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txtj69
The 281.2 satellite was meant to be the third in a series of craft to maintain constant observations of the Sun during the solar activity cycle. However, the Delta 33's third stage ignited prematurely destroying the craft.
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txtj70
With its launch terminated at T minus 42 seconds, this spacecraft, atop an Atlas-Agena D, never achieved orbit. The launch was a simultaneous countdown of the craft and its Atlas-Agena target vehicle. However, telemetry was lost after 375 seconds forcing the abort of the launch.
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txtj71
The last unmanned ballistic flight, this 4,989kg craft was launched by the Little Joe II booster. It demonstrated the capabilities of the escape vehicle.
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txtj72
Launched by a Scout 42, the 95kg satellite, placed into suborbital flight, tested the heating environment of a body reentering the atmosphere at 27,000fps.
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txtj73
The 20,820kg Apollo capsule was carried into suborbital flight by a Saturn 1B booster as a vehicle test flight.
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txtj74
The 3,252kg Gemini capsule, atop an Atlas-Agena D, was to be the target vehicle for Gemini 9A, but the vehicle failed because of a malfunction in the servo control circuit.
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txtj75
Launched by a Saturn 1B, the 25,809.7kg Apollo launch vehicle achieved a suborbital flight in a development test of the craft to determine launch vehicle and spacecraft data. Specifically, the test determined the capabilities of the Apollo Command Module's heat shield.
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txtj76
In a launch vehicle test of the Atlas-Centaur, a 952.6kg Surveyor mockup was injected into simulated lunar transfer orbit in a demonstration of the two-burn parking orbit operational capability.
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txtj77
A Delta 43 booster launched the 426.4kg satellite into orbit. The craft carried biological specimens into orbit to study life-processes in space. The reentry capsule vehicle separated to inject the specimens back into the atmosphere, but, the retrorocket failed to fire leaving the capsule in orbit. No useful data was obtained.
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text550
The 385.6kg interplanetary probe, launched by an Atlas-Agena D, photographed landing sites for the Apollo and Surveyor missions from lunar orbit. Over 2 million square miles of the lunar surface was photographed by the probe. The craft took the first two photos of the Earth from the distance of the Moon. As well, the satellite demonstrated the maneuverability of a craft in lunar orbit.
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text552
Launched by a Delta 40 booster, the 63.5kg craft was the second in a series to study solar wind, magnetic fields and cosmic rays in interplanetary space.
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text561
An Atlas-Centaur rocket placed the 1,000.2kg interplanetary probe on its course for soft-landing on the Moon. On the midcourse correction, a vernier engine failed to fire sending the craft tumbling. On Sept. 23, 1966, the probe crashed southeast of the crater Copernicus after flying for 62.8 hours.
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text564
The 147.4kg satellite, launched by a Delta 41 rocket, replaced ESSA-1 in the Tiros Operational Satellite system. The craft's sophisticated sensors and cameras provided researchers with valuable information on weather patterns and conditions.
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text572
Launched by a Delta 42, the 87.1 Comsat commercial communications satellite failed to maintain the desired orbit when an apogee motor failed.
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text576
An Atlas Agena D launched the 385.6 probe into lunar orbit. The craft photographed the surface of the Moon from lunar orbit, provided information on the lunar gravitation field and photographed the Ranger VIII landing site including surface debris tossed out at impact.
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text585
Launched by an Atlas Agena D, the 703.1kg satellite performed various communication, meteorology and control technology experiments. As well, the craft observed the orbital environment. The satellite's spin-scan camera photographed changing weather patterns, and the craft demonstrated air to ground and air to air communications for the first time.
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text543
The 3,762.6kg Gemini X capsule was launched into orbit by a Titan II 10 booster. Aboard the capsule were John W. Young and Michael Collins. Reaching a record altitude of 474 miles, the Gemini crew were able to rendezvous twice with GATV Agena target vehicle. The rendezvous included the first docked vehicle maneuvers. As well, Collins performed a spacewalk to retrieve a micrometeorite detector from the target vehicle. The flight ended after 3 days with a splashdown in the Atlantic.
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text1
The first man-made satellite to achieve orbit was a 58cm diameter, 83.6kg aluminum sphere pressurized with helium and loaded with two radio transmitters. It signaled the Earth with
a series of beeps that ended 23 days after launch. The satellite was boosted into orbit by an A-1 rocket.
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text2
Laika became the first terrestrial creature to orbit the Earth when a T-3 rocket boosted her into space. Her capsule, the Sputnik-2 satellite, carried air and life-support systems as well
as instruments to measure the reaction of her body to space travel. A week into orbit, Laika died as the oxygen in the tiny craft was completely exhausted. The craft also carried
instruments to study cosmic rays and X-rays. It reentered the atmosphere April, 1958.
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text6
The 1,327kg Sputnik-3 was launched into orbit with instruments to study cosmic rays, micrometeorite impact and Earth atmospheric conditions such as composition, pressure and ionization.
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text11
The 361kg spherical satellite became the first interplanetary probe when it failed to impact with the Moon as planned because of burnout failure of the CH-10 booster. Instead, the craft
traveled within 5,955km of the lunar surface. Its instrument package contained experiments to study cosmic radiation, magnetic fields and micrometeorite impact. On Jan. 3, the satellite
expelled a cloud of orange sodium gas that could be visually tracked from the Earth. The probe is credited with discovering solar winds and the Moon's lack of magnetic field. After passing
the Moon, the craft became the first man-made "planet," orbiting the Sun.
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text19
Impacting with the Moon east of the Mare Serenitatis on Sept. 14, the 390.2kg Luna 2 satellite became the first man-made object to visit another planetary body. The probe carried instruments to measure radiation, magnetic fields and micrometeorite impacts.
Once these instruments fell silent, it was clear that the satellite had hard landed on the lunar surface. Ground trackers confirmed the trajectory of the object by the emission of an orange sodium cloud that was visible from space.
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text21
The 278.5kg satellite became the first interplanetary probe to be inserted into a useful orbit. The craft photographed the dark side of the Moon for 40 minutes as it passed the lunar surface at a distance of 7,890km. It used batteries and solar cells to power its mission which developed film and then transmitted them back to Earth. A total of nine photos were received before the device failed. Eventually the satellite fell back into Earth's gravitational pull and destruction in the atmosphere.
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text29
In an effort to perfect their manned spaceflight systems, the Soviets launched a mock capsule complete with a dummy passenger. The craft was radio controlled and was meant to reenter the atmosphere on command. However, a fault in the braking system caused the craft to go into a higher than expected orbit. Valuable orbital information was transmitted back to Earth via radio recordings of instrument readings.
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text37
Two dogs, four mice, a rat, a jar of flies, germs, algae, fungi, plant seeds and sections of human and rabbit skin were lifted into orbit within a 4,600kg space capsule. Strelka and Belka, the dogs, were monitored through television cameras and life-support instrumentation. After 18 orbits, the craft was ordered to reenter the atmosphere. A protective heat-shield prevented burn-up, and the craft landed within 10km of its landing target. All animals were recovered from the capsule.
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text43
This mission tested, for the second time, the capabilities of the Soviet space capsule. With a mass of 1,563kg, the craft was lifted into orbit carrying two dogs and a variety of other living subjects. Pchelka and Mushka, the dogs, were monitored through television and life-support instrumentation. However, when the craft was ordered to reenter the atmosphere, an error caused the satellite to veer off course and was lost to ground controllers.
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text48
Containing instruments to measure meteorite contacts, radiation, space composition and magnetism, the 643.5kg probe was launched towards Venus from a satellite in Earth orbit. The probe was powered by batteries and solar energy. Control was maintained through radio contact every five days. However, Mar. 3, ground controllers lost contact with the satellite and was presumed lost.
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text47
At 6,483kg, the satellite was the largest craft placed into orbit up to that time. It was launched by an improved multi-stage rocket and carried instruments to measure meteorite impacts. But, its main purpose was to study the stresses of such a massive object in space. The craft fell to Earth Feb. 26.
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text59
Yuri A. Gagarin became the first man to orbit the Earth when his Vostok capsule was launched into space by a multi-stage rocket. He completed one orbit, 89.1 minutes, and then reentered the atmosphere hard-landing near the village of Smelovka in Russia. Gagarin suffered no ill-effects from the flight or the landing.
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text54
A 4,700kg satellite, with Chernushka--a dog, was launched into orbit. The capsule was commanded to reenter the atmosphere by radio. It completed an unspecified number of orbits before hard-landing at an unspecified location in Russia. The dog was retrieved and found to be in good health.
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text55
Lifted into space by a multi-stage rocket, the 4,700kg satellite, and its dog passenger, Zvezdochka, completed an unspecified number of orbits. It reentered the atmosphere by radio command and hard-landed in an unspecified location in Russia. No injury or harm came to the dog.
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text67
A multi-stage rocket launched G.S. Titov into orbit where he completed 17 revolutions of the Earth. During the 25 hour flight, the 4,731kg capsule was manually maneuvered twice by the cosmonaut. The man's vital statistics were constantly monitored and found to be unaffected by weightlessness. As well, the cosmonaut was able to eat a paste before reentering the atmosphere and landing near Krasny Kut, Russia.
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text93
The Cosmos satellite series was designed to study near-Earth space with instruments examining meteorite impacts, ionosphere composition, solar particle emission, the radiation belts, the magnetic field and short wave radio emissions from other bodies. Some of the craft were equipped with capsules that could be
ordered to reenter the atmosphere and retrieved for close examination. The Cosmos designation was also used by the Soviets for testing spy and killer satellites. As well, the designation was used to mask flight failures for several projects.
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text122
Maj. Andrian G. Nikolayev, in Vostok 3, was lifted into orbit by a multi-stage rocket in what would become the world's first double flight. Mere hours after Vostok 3 was launched, Vostok 4
went into orbit carrying Pavel Popovich. Vostok 4's orbital insertion was just 6500m from the already orbiting Vostok 3. Both cosmonauts were able to visually track each other as well as transmit television pictures back to Earth. Since the Vostok design lacked maneuvering capability, the two craft eventually drifted apart, but the cosmonauts were able to keep constant radio contact. After completing a variety of medical tests to determine the endurance of a human in space, the craft simultaneously reentered the atmosphere. Vostok 3 completed 64 orbits while Vostok 4 completed 48 making the combined effort the
longest space flights up to that time.
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text143
This Mars probe, launched into orbit on an unspecified rocket, broke up into hundreds of pieces as it attempted to leave Earth
orbit.
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text147
Mars 1, at 894kg and 3.3m long, was lifted on a course for Mars by a multi-stage rocket. Its mission was to collect television images and atmospheric and radiation information about the Red Planet. Solar panels helped to power the probe which also carried a large, umbrella-shaped high-gain antenna, a midcourse correction engine and meteoroid detection equipment. Every five days, the craft would report back to ground controllers its telemetry. However on Mar. 21, 1963, the orientation system of the probe malfunctioned moving the transmitters out of contact with Earth, and the mission was lost.
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text168
Launched by an A-2e multi-stage rocket, the Luna-4 mission was to test soft-landing on the lunar surface, but a malfunction in the upper stage of the booster caused the 1,422kg craft to fly by the
Moon at 9,301km. Contact with the probe was lost April 6, 1963.
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text184
In a second attempt to test the accuracy of the Soviet ability to rendezvous two spacecraft, Valeri Bykovsky was launched into space aboard the Vostok 5. He was to be joined the following day
by Valentina Tereshkova; however, her launch had to be postponed 24 hours until several malfunctions could be solved. Indeed, Vostok 6, carrying the first woman into orbit, was inserted only 5,000m away from the Vostok 5 capsule. Although they drifted apart, the cosmonauts were able to keep continuous communication.
After performing several experiments and evaluations of human endurance, Tereshkova was first to touch down having completed 48 orbits. Upon her landing, she was greeted by steppe herdsmen who hailed her as a hero and fed her their traditional hero's feast of cheese, flatcakes and fermented mare's milk. Bykovsky, having completed 81 orbits, reentered the atmosphere and landed several hours after his fellow cosmonaut.
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text219
Polyot-1 served as a flight test of the Soyuz B vehicle design. Until this program test, the Soviets lacked a maneuverable capsule. Polyot, however, demonstrated that they could engineer a highly successful and capable maneuvering system for manned spaceflight.
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text243
Electron 1 and 2 were launched simultaneously by one multi-stage rocket. Once in orbit, their mission was to study the composition of the radiation belts, charged low-energy particles, electron and positive ion concentration, the magnetic field. the nuclear components of cosmic radiation, the Sun's short-wave
radio emissions and the radio emissions of other cosmic bodies.
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text254
Lifted into orbit by a multi-stage rocket and launched from orbit by a second platform, the 825kg Zond-1 was meant to be an encounter vehicle for a Venus flyby. The mission progressed smoothly with the probe having changed its course by ground command twice. However, the craft's radio failed before its
encounter date, and no photographs could be transmitted back to Earth of the intersection.
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text258
Polyot-2 served as a flight test of the Soyuz B vehicle design. This mission tested a larger maneuvering system that produced a greater thrust than the first flight test.
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text279
Electron 3 and 4 were launched simultaneously by one multi-stage rocket. Once in orbit, their mission was to study the composition of the radiation belts, charged low-energy particles, electron and positive ion concentration, the magnetic field. the nuclear components of cosmic radiation, the Sun's short-wave
radio emissions and the radio emissions of other cosmic bodies.
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text315
Three men, Vladimir Komarov, Konstantin Feoktistov and Boris Yegorov, were launched into space aboard the Voskhod 1. More spacious, with better amenities than the Vostok capsules, the Voskhod craft allowed the men to perform a variety of biological experiments using themselves as well as Earth and cosmic photography. After completing 16 orbits, the men reentered the atmosphere to land 2,000km southeast of Moscow. Their impact was cushioned by soft-landing rockets that fired 1.5 seconds
before touch down.
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text330
Launched from a heavy satellite in Earth parking orbit towards Mars, Zond-2 was to flight-test the space-borne systems of the Soviet interplanetary probes. It carried several scientific instruments to study the Red Planet as well as electric plasma rocket motors. However, the power supply for the probe was
depleted more quickly than expected and contact with the probe was lost.
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text378
Pavel Belyayev and Alexei Leonov were launched into orbit in the Voskhod-2 capsule. The two men performed several experiments including physiological tests on the endurance of humans in
space. Leonov, outfitted in a protective spacesuit, became the first human to walk in space. After 10 minutes, Leonov was ordered to return to the capsule, but his suit had over inflated making it much to large for him to reenter the craft. Finally, Leonov was able to reduce the suit's pressure enabling
enter after 12 minutes of struggling. The following orbits were less harrowing with the cosmonauts eating and resting. The capsule was to maneuver into reentry after the 16th orbit, but the retrorocket failed to fire. Their onboard computer system detected an altitude error. Belyayev, having discussed
the situation with ground controllers, decided to fire the retrorocket manually on the 17th orbit. Atmospheric reentry went well, but they were off course by 1,000km. Instead of landing on the Russian steppes, the men landed in the heavily forested Ural Mountains. The cosmonauts, landing safely despite
being caught up in the trees, managed to build a fire and set up a radio beacon to alert their rescue team of their location. Although they had to weather through the extreme cold and stare down a hungry pack of wolves, both men were returned safely to mission control.
-end-
text387
The Molniya satellite system was the Soviet Union's answer to the already highly successful US commercial communications satellite network. Designed specifically for use over the vast landscape
of the Soviet Union, the 816kg, 3.4m long satellites were usually placed into 12 hour orbits over Siberia making it cross from horizon to horizon in eight hours. This orbit made it most useful to the sparsely populated and less-developed regions of the USSR.
-end-
text397
Launched from a heavy satellite in Earth parking orbit, Luna-5's mission was to soft-land on the lunar surface and return television images back to Earth. The craft worked flawlessly carrying out a mid-course correction maneuver to put in direct heading for the Sea of Clouds. However, touch down retrorockets failed to fire, and the 1,475kg probe, at enormous speed, impacted with the lunar surface sending a 80km wide and 225km long dust cloud into space.
-end-
text406
The 1,442kg probe was launched from a heavy satellite in Earth parking orbit. Its mission was to soft-land on the lunar surface. However, when ground controllers attempted to correct its course with the maneuvering rocket motor, the craft sped out of control 161,000km from the Moon.
-end-
text416
The 3,150kg Proton-1's mission was to study gamma rays, cosmic rays and electrons. However, the main significance of the flight was the launch vehicle test of the Proton D booster which could
lift extremely massive objects into Earth orbit. The rocket remained the most technically advanced for almost 20 years having taken advantage of a closed circuit turbine system.
-end-
text418
Following the successful orbit of Luna-3, the 950kg Zond-3 sped towards the moon having been launched from a satellite in Earth parking orbit. Carrying transmission and television equipment,
as well as a lander that would not be used, the probe passed the Moon at a distance of 10,000km 33 hours after its launch. For 68 minutes, the craft returned images of the Moon's dark side with a resolution of 1100 lines (more than twice that of the US Ranger images). Zond-3's lunar images were so
accurate that Soviet scientists created a lunar map based on its pictures. The craft served as a test bed for further interplanetary missions testing the ability to transmit data long ranges.
-end-
text439
Luna-7's mission was to soft-land on the lunar surface and transmit imagery back to Earth ground controllers. However, the 1506kg probe, launched form a heavy satellite in Earth parking orbit, failed to soft-land properly destroying the craft. Retrorockets fired too soon slowing the craft down to zero speed.
It eventually drifted onto the lunar surface and broke up.
-end-
text449
Proton-2, at 3,150kg, was designed to study gamma rays, cosmic rays and electrons in space. As well, the launch served as a test-flight of the Proton D booster.
-end-
text453
Launched on course towards Venus from a heavy satellite in Earth parking orbit, Venera-2 carried various transmission instruments for television pictures to be sent back to ground controllers.
However, just as the probe flew by Venus, it fell silent. Ground controllers tried desperately to contact the 963kg craft to no avail.
-end-
text454
With the ambitious mission of landing on the planet, Venera-3 sped towards Venus having been launched by a multi-stage rocket. Originally, its course was off by 60,550km, but after 13,300 measurements, a course correction was initiated that aimed the probe directly for Venus. At the time of orbital insertion, the craft fell silent and was lost. It carried a 90cm capsule that was to be released by the probe into the atmosphere of Venus. There, it would have landed on the surface and radioed back information about the surface of the planet.
-end-
text461
Identical to its sister probes, the 1,506kg space probe Luna-8 was to soft-land on the lunar surface. All transpired according to plan until the retrorockets had fired early leaving the craft dead in space.
-end-
text481
On February 3, 1966, the Luna-9 probe became the first craft to soft-land on the lunar surface. Launched from a heavy satellite in Earth parking orbit, the 1,583kg probe made its way flawlessly
to the Moon finally firing its retrorockets some 46 seconds before impact. The craft ejected a 99.8kg capsule that fell to the surface and slowly unfolded its petal wings and four 75cm aerials. The capsule, which contained television transmission equipment and a radiation recorder, began to rotate its tiny camera 360 degrees in order to capture the lunar panorama. A series of eight photographs were returned to Earth after seven communications sessions lasting 8 hours and 5 minutes. February 6 was the last day that Luna-9 returned information. Its batteries had failed leaving the Ocean of Storms silent once again. However, Luna-9 remained a great achievement and proved that a vehicle could soft-land on the lunar surface and not be swallowed by dust.
-end-
text503
The 1600kg Luna-10 was launched on its course to the Moon from a heavy satellite in Earth parking orbit. At 8,000km from the Moon, Luna-10 was ordered to maneuver itself so that its retrorockets could fire slowing the approach of the craft. This allowed the probe to be caught by lunar gravitation which, in
turn, made it the first lunar satellite. As it entered orbit, the probe radioed back to Earth, specifically to the Communist Party Congress, their anthem "Internationale." The main mission of the probe was to determine the radiation levels of a near-Moon orbit. In 219 communication sessions, Luna-10's magnetometer, gamma ray detector, infrared radiometer, cosmic ray detector and meteoroid counter relayed information back to ground controllers. Analysis of the data showed that human life could
be sustained in lunar orbit.
-end-
text537
Proton-3, at 3,150kg, was designed to study gamma rays, cosmic rays and electrons in space. As well, the launch served as a test-flight of the Proton D booster.
-end-
text555
The 1,640kg Luna-11 probe was launched toward the Moon from a heavy satellite in Earth parking orbit. It was successfully inserted into a lunar orbit. However, the probe's mission of photo reconnaissance was not. No television transmissions were received from the craft, and all communications ceased Oct. 1.
-end-
text570
Luna-12 performed as planned and was inserted into a lunar orbit to begin its photo reconnaissance mission. Its cameras were high-resolution models capable of transmitting images of 1100 lines back to ground controllers. The satellite operated for three months until Jan. 19, 1967 completing 602 orbits. As well, magnetometers aboard the probe were able to detect anomalous magnetic sources that caused perturbations in the orbits of lunar satellites.
-end-
text585x
These Cosmos missions were test-flights of the Soyuz manned vehicle.
-end-
text630
Soyuz-1 was lifted into orbit by a multi-stage booster. This mission was scheduled to be a manned test-flight of the Soyuz vehicle. However, for reasons which have never been revealed satisfactorily, Soyuz-1 reentered the atmosphere early on the 18th orbit. Official Soviet reports were that this was the planned reentry even though it had been rumored that Soyuz-2 would immediately fly in an attempt to perform docking maneuvers with the original craft. Upon parachute deployment, according to the official Soviet reports, the parachute lines tangled leaving the capsule to plunge to Earth. Whatever the cause of the
accident or the subsequent failure of reentry, Vladimir Komarov became the first man to die during a space mission.
-end-
text651
Launched toward Venus and then correctly positioned to rendezvous with the planet, the Venera-4 probe ejected a 383kg capsule that descended into the Venusian atmosphere. It sent back radio signals to the mother probe until it was 25km from the surface of the planet. The extreme pressures of 22 atmospheres and temperature of 280 degrees celsius succeeded in crushing the capsule. It was determined that the Venusian atmosphere was largely carbon dioxide with only one percent oxygen.
-end-
text659x
Cosmos 167 was meant to be a Venera mission, but it did not achieve Earth orbit.
-end-
text733
This Zond mission carried an unknown payload that apparently was destroyed or lost upon entry into orbit.
-end-
text747
Luna-14 was designed to make accurate measurements of the Earth and Moon masses, study the Moon's gravitational field, perfect radio transmission from the Moon, register cosmic rays and observe more precisely the motion of the Moon in its orbit.
-end-
text796
Complete with a cargo of live turtles, Zond-5 was a flight-test of the Soviet lunar mission vehicle based on the Soyuz capsules. Ground controllers were able to correct the crafts trajectory, and it performed one orbit around the Moon. The craft returned safely to Earth where it landed in the Indian Ocean and was retrieved by the Soviet Navy.
-end-
text816y
Cosmos-238 was the first launch of a craft named Soyuz-2, but it developed problems in orbit and was renamed. This also postponed the launch of Soyuz-3 which was set to rendezvous with the capsule.
-end-
text816
Col. Georgi Beregovoi piloted the Soyuz-3 capsule in two efforts to rendezvous with the unmanned, drone Soyuz-2. Onboard computers and tracking systems allowed the cosmonaut to perform the two impressive procedures. However, no docking was reportedly done. The remainder of the mission was spent in observing the Earth. The Soyuz-2 capsule returned to Earth early while Beregovoi completed 61 orbits before returning. Both craft, as well as cosmonaut, were recovered without incident.
-end-
text821
In another test-flight of their lunar mission capabilities, the Soviets launched Zond-6 towards the Moon. It automatically corrected its course and eventually made a complete orbit around the Earth's companion. The craft passed over the lunar surface at 2,418km while it took hundreds of photos of the Moon. After
the orbit, the craft redirected itself towards Earth where it would reenter the atmosphere and be recovered in the Indian Ocean.
-end-
text823
Launched into orbit by the Proton-G booster, the Proton-4, at 11,250kg, was to study the chemical composition of primary cosmic particles and the intensity and energy spectrum of high energy cosmic rays and electrons of galactic origins. As well, the launch served as a test-flight for the new booster.
-end-
text840
Launched separately, the two 1120kg Venera twin probes worked properly on their course to rendezvous with Venus. Each carried a 1m wide, 405kg capsule that was designed to soft-land on the surface of Venus. Both were ejected into the atmosphere. However, neither reached the elusive soft-landing target with Venera-5's capsule being destroyed at 12km above the surface and Venera-6's at 16km. They both returned information as to the composition of Venus' atmosphere: 93-97 percent carbon dioxide, 2-5 percent inert gases and .4 percent oxygen.
-end-
text843
Vladimir Shatalov, in Soyuz-4, was the first to be launched into orbit, but he had only a day to wait for company in the form of Soyuz-5 and her crew, Boris Volynov, Yevgeni Khrunov and Alexei Yeliseyev. At Soyuz-5's entry into orbit, Shatalov had already turned his craft to greet them. They synchronized their orbits in preparation for docking. On Soyuz-4's 34th orbit and Soyuz-5's 18th, the two craft became one as 4's docking probe was met by 5's drogue. This completed, Khrunov and Yeliseyev donned their spacesuits and made their way outside Soyuz-5 leaving Volynov. The cosmonauts joined Shatalov in Soyuz-4, and they uncoupled their craft. Soyuz-4 landed in -35 degree weather while Volynov was allowed to land in calmer conditions near Kustanai.
-end-
text868
Usually launched from an A-2 or F-2 rocket, the Meteor satellites have the purpose of studying weather patterns. At any given time, three of these satellites are operational and feed cloud cover information to Russian ground stations. A total of 30 Meteor-1's, the first generation, flew while 16 Meteor-2's became operational. Both programs were maintained simultaneously with the Meteor-1 program being stopped after the first Meteor-3 lifted off Oct. 24, 1985. Some Meteor satellites were outfitted with Earth resources imaging equipment such as infrared detectors.
-end-
text874
Andrian Nikolayev and Vitali Sevastyanov were launched into orbit aboard the Soyuz-9 spacecraft where they were to complete 285 orbits before returning to Earth. The men performed a variety of experiments that included weather observations over the southern Republics. The cosmonauts, because of their extensive stay in space, were ordered to exercise for two hours each day, but the men found this unpopular, because there was no shower facility onboard. After almost 18 days in space, Soyuz-9's retrorockets were fired and within minutes the two cosmonauts were landed in a plowed Russian wheat field. The men were isolated for two weeks ostensibly to protect them from diseases in their unacclimatized condition. Their stay in space had left them unable to walk for three days and an abnormal heart rate. Full recovery from the mission took a month.
-end-
text875
Zond-8, carrying tortoises, flies, onions, wheat, barley and microbes, was a lunar flyby mission in preparation for a cosmonaut mission to the Moon. The craft flew over the surface of the Moon at 1120km. On its return to Earth, the craft collided with the atmosphere over the North Pole where it performed a series of skip and lift maneuvers before parachute deployment. The craft was recovered in the Indian Ocean.
-end-
text876
Launched from a Proton rocket, the Salyut-1 space station obtained orbit where it would be used for scientific experiments and human habitation in space. Very spacious, the cylindrical station had three different diameters of 4.15, 2.9 and 2m. Its length was 14.4m with a mass of 17,010kg. At the rear of the station was a motor and propellant giving it the ability to change its orbit.
-end-
text877
After the newly launched Salyut-1 space station had completed its 66th orbit, the crew of Soyuz -10, Vladimir Shatalov, Alexei Yeliseyev and Nikolai Rukhavishnikov, were launched into orbit. Their mission was to dock with the space station which they achieved nearly 24 hours later. However, the cosmonauts never entered the space station. Within five and a half hours of docking, the two craft went their separate ways with Soyuz-10 reentering the atmosphere. Speculation was that Rukhavishnikov became ill and forced the mission to be aborted, but the Soviets denied that the mission was cut short. No further explanation has ever been given to explain the shortness of what should have been a lengthy flight.
-end-
text878
Soyuz-11 linked up with the orbiting Salyut-1 station June 7, 1971. The station had completed 794 orbits and had never been used by cosmonauts. This mission would change that. Georgi Dobrovolski, Vladislav Volkov and Viktor Patsayev found the docking smooth and routine. Volkov was the first to open the internal hatch and float through. At once, the cosmonauts transferred their equipment and necessities to the station from their Soyuz capsule. The crew would spend 342 orbits within the station performing astronomical observations, weather studies and biological experiments including the growth of a garden. However, the men became too fatigued after the 27th of June, and ground control ordered them to come down. Sadly, they left their home hopeful that they would return. But, as they moved away from Salyut, the seal of their descent module broke letting all the air in the capsule rush out. The men died instantly though their craft reentered the atmosphere automatically.
-end-
text879
A D-1 booster lifted the Salyut-2 space station into orbit making Russia's second. However, when the station was ordered to enter the right orbit for docking purposes, the craft's maneuvering engine exploded sending it into violent tumbling. The solar panels were ripped off as well as the antennae. Power and communications were nearly dead. It fell to Earth May 28, 1973.
-end-
text880
Salyut-3 was launched into orbit by a D-1 booster. This station was the military version of the program. It was 2m shorter consisting only of two compartments rather than three. The craft had a docking unit on the rear port while the fore port held a recovery capsule. As a military station, it was meant to be manned for only five weeks total, but the station had an Earth reconnaissance system that surveyed the planet possibly as a test bed for spy satellites. The recovery capsule held this system which would reenter the atmosphere and be recovered. On Sept. 23, 1974, the recovery capsule was undocked and did reenter the atmosphere, and on Dec. 25, after 2,950 orbits, Salyut-3 burned up in the atmosphere.
-end-
text881
Pavel Popovich and Yuri Artyukhin were lifted into orbit aboard their Soyuz-14 capsule. They guided their craft into a docking orbit with Salyut-3. After docking was achieved, the cosmonauts performed experiments to determine the effects of aerosols on the atmosphere, bacteria cultivation and water recycling. As well, they examined the Sun using a solar telescope. Much of the cosmonaut's mission seems to have been involved with getting the Earth surveillance system of Salyut-3 operational. After 16 days, Popovich and Artyukhin reentered the atmosphere and were recovered.
-end-
text882
Soyuz-15 lifted into orbit with the mission of docking with the Salyut-3 space station. There, Gennadi Sarafanov and Lev Demin were to spend 19-29 days performing a variety of experiments. But, due to computer and tracking malfunctions, Soyuz-15 was not able to dock with the station ending the mission.
-end-
text883
Salyut-5 was launched into orbit by a D-1 booster. This station was of the same military design as Salyut-3. Apparently, a malfunction in the air regeneration system forced this Salyut to be used only once for an extended period of time. After 14 months in space, the craft burned up in the atmosphere.
-end-
text884
Boris Volynov and Vitali Zholobov were launched into space aboard the Soyuz-21 capsule. They docked with the Salyut-5 space station and performed many biological experiments as well as meteorological observations. Because the station was of military designation, other crew activities were not reported, but speculation has been that they used special spy satellite gear to monitor the Earth. The cosmonauts did, however, perform the first materials processing experiments in space. After 48 days, the crew was forced to exit the station and return to Earth because of a faulty air recycling system. Volynov and Zholobov suffered from sensory deprivation and needed time to recover in isolation.
-end-
text885
Soyuz-23, meant to be a repair mission for the ailing Salyut-5, failed to rendezvous with the space station. Vyacheslav Zudov and Valeri Rozhdezhvensky ran out of fuel trying to maneuver the capsule manually into docking position. Ground control decided that Soyuz-23 should return to Earth. However, weather conditions were terrible at the landing site. A virtual blizzard blanketed the salt lake where they landed. Eventually, it took five hours to rescue the two cosmonauts stuck in their capsule surrounded by freezing water.
-end-
text886
Viktor Gorbatko and Yuri Glazhkov were lifted into orbit aboard the Soyuz-24 capsule. Their mission was to revitalize the Salyut-5 station. After completing 19 orbits, the capsule and station were united and the air flushing exercise of the Salyut could begin. The cosmonauts waited a day before entering the station. But, once they did, experiments continued by the previous successful mission were continued. Most importantly, the cosmonauts prepared the recovery capsule, which was a military Earth surveillance system, for reentry. Soyuz-24 returned to Earth without any problems, and the Salyut recovery capsule was returned as well.
-end-
text887
Salyut 2-1 never achieved orbit for reasons that have never been disclosed.
-end-
text888
This was a Salyut space station that achieved orbit but had a massive systems failure there. It remained unusable till its burn up in the atmosphere May 22, 1973.
-end-
text889
Launched by a D-1 rocket into orbit, the Salyut-4 space station was of the civilian designation much like Salyut-1. It was spacious and had the same dimensions as the original craft, but it carried three solar panels, a garden, an Earth observation camera, a water recycling unit and a solar and ultraviolet telescope. During the Soyuz 18-1 mission, green mold began to grow all around the station and the craft became unbearably humid. Therefore, it had been decided that the station would be used as a test bed for the automatic fuel and supply delivery system later to be called Progress.
-end-
text890
Alexei Gubarev and Georgi Grechko were launched into orbit aboard the Soyuz-17 capsule. Soon, they were docked with the Salyut-4 station and underway with their experiments. The cosmonauts had grown green peas in the garden, tracked forest fires in Africa, observed the Sun, stars and galaxies and even watched the hatching of eggs in the biology lab. As well, the men surveyed the land mass of the Soviet Union specifically observing the snow coverage. The water recycling system aboard the station was found to work well alleviating the need to carry extra water in the Soyuz capsules. After 30 days of space flight, the cosmonauts landed without incident.
-end-
text891
Soyuz 18-1 was meant to be a record breaking long stay in space aboard the Salyut-4 space station. However, cosmonauts Vasili Lazarev and Oleg Markarov experienced early trouble when, at 120km, the core stage of their booster rocket failed to separate with the capsule. The craft began to tumble violently. After many minutes of decision making, ground control signaled the Soyuz capsule to blast free. It, though, began to fall to Earth at enormous speed. They fell into the Altai Mountain Range near the border between the USSR and China. Luckily, the men survived, bleeding, bruised with broken bones, and were rescued by herdsmen.
-end-
text892
Pyotr Klimuk and Vitali Sevastianov docked their Soyuz-18 capsule with the Salyut-4 station. They had become the second Russian crew to inhabit a space station. The men promptly lifted the station into a higher, more stable orbit. All went as planned. They performed a variety of experiments including star spectrograms of Cygnus. After many days, the air recycling system began to malfunction leaving too much humidity in the air. As a result, a green mold began to grow all over the station. The cosmonauts became increasingly uneasy and uncomfortable. Several times they asked permission to leave the station and were denied. Finally, with 63 days elapsed in space, the men were allowed to return to Earth.
-end-
text893
Soyuz-20 was launched into orbit to test the automatic rendezvous systems that would become the Progress autopilot. The craft docked perfectly with the Salyut-4 station and maintained dock for 90 days until it returned to Earth. It carried several turtles, 20 species of higher plants, drosophila fruit flies, cacti, corn and vegetable seeds. Mainly, though, this mission was a flight-test of the autopilot system and Soyuz capsule duration in space testing the length of decay of fuel and thermal protection.
-end-
text897
After the disaster of Soyuz-11, several design modifications to the capsule were undertaken. Gone was one seat leaving two. Smaller fuel tanks were installed, and solar panels were replaced by batteries. Cosmos-496 was launched to flight-test the new design. The capsule returned to Earth without a hitch during the six day shakedown.
-end-
text898
Cosmos-573 was a flight-test of the requalified Soyuz ferry.
-end-
text896
Vasili Lazarev and Oleg Markarov performed the first manned flight-test of the requalified Soyuz ferry. The cosmonauts tested the maneuvering system and navigation methods to their fullest placing the Soyuz in its highest orbit ever. They did have time to perform some Earth observations, but mostly, the space worthiness of Soyuz was the prime concern of the crew. The return to Earth went well with a landing near Karaganda.
-end-
text900
Cosmos-613 tested the Soyuz capsule's ability to withstand long-duration flights coupled with a space station. Temperature, micrometeorites, fuel longevity were all tested. The craft returned to Earth after 60 days.
-end-
text899
Pyotr Klimuk and Valentin Lebedev were launched into space aboard the Soyuz-13 capsule. They performed two important experiments, Orion 2 and Oasis 2. These were to be flown on a Salyut space station, but none were operational. Orion 2 was composed of one standard and one ultraviolet telescope to study the Sun and other stars. A biological container, Oasis 2 grew chlorella and other plants in a study of how high-protein plants could be grown during long space stays. The men returned to Earth without incident after completing their mission.
-end-
text903x
Cosmos-638 was a flight-test of the Soyuz capsule that lasted three days.
-end-
text902
Soyuz-16 was designed to flight-test the upcoming Apollo-Soyuz ASTP mission. Anatoli Filipchenko and Nikolai Rukhavishnikov performed 20 experiments dealing with the new docking tunnel (to link Apollo and Soyuz), atmospheric pressures and frequencies. This mission was tracked by the NASA network and communicated through Mission Control Houston. The cosmonauts returned to Earth after a successful flight.
-end-
text903
Alexei Leonov and Valeri Kubasov were launched into orbit aboard their Soyuz-19 capsule. They waited only several hours before Apollo ASTP was aloft and in chase. Donald Slayton, Vance Brand and Tom Stafford performed their rendezvous and docking maneuvers perfectly with the two capsules joined by midday July 17. Instantly, the men started the lengthy process of depressurizing the special docking module to Soyuz's level. By 8:17 that night, the hatches were opened and men from the American mission floated into the Soyuz capsule. Leonov and Kubasov treated the men to gifts and food. All were congratulated by Premier Leonid Brezhnev and President Gerald Ford. Both craft remained docked for two days until Apollo undocked and drew 50m away to eclipse the Sun. The cosmonauts then photographed the Sun's corona. Afterwards, Apollo attempted to redock but with difficulty. Finally, though they succeeded. Soyuz-19 returned to Earth without incident the morning of the 21st, leaving Apollo to carry out a variety of experiments before reentering July 24.
-end-
text904
Soyuz-22, flown by Valeri Bykovsky and Vladimir Aksenov, was launched into a circular orbit of 65 degrees--the first since Voskhod-2. This orbit allowed the craft to cover the northern latitudes in an effort to study the geography of the northern Soviet Union. After eight days, the men were successfully returned to Earth.
-end-
text901
Cosmos-772 was a flight-test of the autopilot system to be used in the Progress supply ferry. It performed well in its three day mission.
-end-
text911x
Cosmos-1001 was a flight-test of the Soyuz-T capsule. It remained aloft for 11 days before returning to Earth.
-end-
text912x
Cosmos-1074 was a flight-test of the Soyuz-T capsule. This craft remained in orbit for 60 days to fully test the reliability of the ship.
-end-
text910
Launched from a D-1 booster, the Salyut-6 space station was 15m long, 4.15m at its widest and had a mass of 17,010kg. The craft had all the amenities of the previous Salyut stations including the BST 1m telescope and MKF 6m multi-spectral camera. Also new to the station was the shower which consisted of a polythene cabin with a pump and nozzle, and a teletype machine which allowed the men to sleep when they wanted to because ground control could send hard copies of their orders instead of through radio only. As well, the craft had two docking ports, one on either end, which would become very important in achieving habitability. In the end, the craft served in 11 visiting missions, 12 Progress supply flights, 676 manned days, 1,330 separate experiments and 15,000 photographing sessions.
-end-
text911
Vladimir Kovalyonok and Valeri Ryumin were launched aboard Soyuz-25 as the first mission to dock with Salyut-6 on the 20th anniversary of Sputnik-1. The launch proceeded normally as did the pursuit maneuvers. By orbit 17 of the Soyuz capsule, the cosmonauts were closing fast and near docking. However, the docking latches of the Salyut station failed to close. Four times had the men forced the docking pieces together, and four times they had failed. After being in space for little over two days, the dejected cosmonauts were ordered to return to Earth.
-end-
text912
In an effort to salvage the Salyut-6 station, Yuri Romanenko and Georgi Grechko were launched into orbit aboard the Soyuz-26 capsule. Once in orbit, the men rendezvoused with the station perfectly, and on their first try, docked with the seconds port. The cosmonauts had to clear their way through the second docking port which had been filled with motors and equipment, but they were inside. After spending a week starting all the station's systems, Grechko donned his new, one-piece space suit to check the primary docking ring. Soyuz-25's docking equipment must have been faulty because the ring worked perfectly. As Grechko made his way back to the cabin, he noticed his comrade, Romanenko, fly off into space his protective tether not attached to the station. Quickly Grechko lunged after the man saving him from becoming a human satellite. However, the men were still threatened when they tried to reenter the station. A valve would not close. It kept releasing the air of the station out into space. The cosmonauts soon learned that the instrument reading was false, and they were safe. In the following days, they performed many experiments and kept the station running.
Jan. 10 was the launch date of Soyuz-27, with a crew of Vladimir Dzanibekov and Oleg Markarov. They were to join their comrades already aboard the Salyut-6 station. Theirs was to be a six-day mission to test the ability of the station to provide for more than two men and two capsules. After there allotted time, Dzanibekov and Markarov left their comrades in the station and blasted back to Earth aboard the Soyuz-26 capsule.
The next rendezvous for the mission was the docking of Progress-1 the first operational ferry. On Jan. 20, the craft was launched, and it took two days for the craft to dock, but it did. Romanenko and Grechko unloaded the robot craft of its new supplies, personal items and, lastly and most difficult, the fuel needed for the station. All went well, and the men soon packed the ferry with their own refuse. The ferry was eventually ordered to reenter the atmosphere.
Soyuz-28, with the Intercosmos cosmonauts Vladimir Remek and Alexei Gubarev, was launched into orbit and docked with the Salyut-6 station. They brought with them the Splav-01 furnace for smelting materials of all kinds. As well, several joint Russian-Czech experiments were carried out by the four men who occupied the station. The crew of Soyuz-28 undocked and returned to Earth Mar. 10.
Six days later, after closing down the station, Romanenko and Grechko finally returned to Earth having completed 96 days and 10 hours in space.
-end-
text914
The Progress robotic ferries are designed to automatically dock with the orbiting Russian space stations. They carry supplies of food, clothing, experiments and fuel. As well, ground controllers will place inside the ferries personal items and mail for cosmonauts who are in orbit. This system has been quite reliable in the maintenance of the Russian station program. Upon reentry, the craft burn-up, and thus cannot be used to return materials to Earth.
-end-
text916
Soyuz-29, piloted by Vladimir Kovalyonok and Alexander Ivanchenkov, obtained orbit normally and slipped into its rendezvous maneuvers without incident. The mission meant docking with the Salyut-6 station. On the capsule's final approach with the station, the cosmonauts activated the new automatic navigation system called Igla. It worked perfectly docking on the first try. The cosmonauts spent a week getting the station back in working order, but soon were able to begin their experiments.
On June 28, the original cosmonauts were joined by Pyotr Klimuk and Miroslav Hermaziewski aboard Soyuz-30. They carried with them several experiments designed by the Polish Academy of Sciences and the Warsaw Institute of Air Medicine. The most remarkable was the 14 hour smelting of pure glass called Sirena. After a week, the crew of the Soyuz-30 were returned to Earth.
By July 7, Progress-2 had come to refresh the cosmonauts now near depleted supplies. A new instrument panel was ferried up as well as a 100kg of film.
Days later, July 29, Kovalyonok and Ivanchenkov suited up for their spacewalk. They replaced the Medusa experiment with new subjects. The experiment was designed to test the ability of life to exist in the element of space. However, the cosmonauts were taken aback by the stark beauty of their surroundings and stayed outside despite ground control orders to return. Their spirits were lifted enormously.
Aug. 10, Progress-3 attached itself to the Salyut station and replenished the food, water and air supply.
Most of the time that the cosmonauts had free, at this time, was spent observing the passing Earth underneath them. They were amazed by the great beauty and activity on the planet.
Oct. 6, Progress-4 carried sausages, fresh milk, chocolate, boots, slippers, electric razors, clean sheets and bedroom partitions. The men were elated by the amenities.
Valeri Bykovsky and Sigmund Jaehn were the next visitors to the station aboard the Soyuz-31 capsule. They brought with them powerful East German optical equipment with which to perform observation experiments. After more than a week, the crew of Soyuz-31 boarded Soyuz-29 and returned to Earth.
Kovalyonok and Ivanchenkov boarded the Soyuz-31 on Sept. 7. They undocked with the station and swung it around so that they could dock with the primary docking unit. The next Progress would need the rear docking unit.
After this maneuver, the men settled back down and performed more Earth mapping and celestial observations. On Nov. 2, the cosmonauts gladly returned to Earth after 139 days, 14 hours and 48 minutes.
-end-
text922
Soyuz-32 lifted off with Vladimir Lyakhov and Valeri Ryumin inside. Once in orbit, the cosmonauts began the chase of the Salyut-6 station. After docking, the men set to work repairing and restarting the station's systems.
Mar. 14, Progress-5 docked with the station providing the men with fresh water, a fire-alarm, a new teletype machine, walkie-talkies and fuel. During the fuel transfer, though, a problem developed with one fuel tank leaking and nitrogen contaminating the fuel. The cosmonauts solved the situation by isolating the bad fuel tank and releasing its contents. Salyut had to be spun around and around for this to happen.
After solving their first crisis, they settled down and went ahead with their first mission objectives. Soyuz-33 was to dock with Salyut April 11. The craft was manned by Nikolai Rukhavishnikov and Georgi Ivanov. However, as they approached the station, the capsule's propulsion system failed and sent the men out past Salyut. They were ordered to return to Earth immediately to avoid becoming stranded in space.
May 13, Progress-6 joined the waiting cosmonauts and replenished their fuel supply. June 6, hours after Progress-6 undocked, Soyuz-34 was launched and subsequently docked with the station. It was unmanned as a serious design problem was felt to have caused the Soyuz-33 mishap. Soyuz-32, still docked, was loaded with the results of their mission which they felt needed to be returned to Earth, and it was free June 13. The following day, Lyakhov and Ryumin boarded the Soyuz-34 capsule and redocked the craft with the main docking ring so that Progress-7 could dock. This craft brought the cosmonauts fuel, freight, a radio telescope, a SALT-2 briefing and a Moscow history book.
The radio telescope, KRT-10 for cosmic radio telescope, was placed into the rear docking ring where it unfurled after the release of Progress-7. The telescope, in tandem with the Crimean observatory radio dish, worked as planned and allowed researchers to study the Sun, Milky Way and Pulsar PL-0392. When the telescope finally finished its mission, which had to be every two days because of energy consumption, the KRT-10 was cast off. But, it snagged on an optical sighting. No amount of maneuvering of the station could free the thing. A space walk was planned, even though the cosmonauts were fatigued and at the end of their mission.
Once the space walk was completed, the men prepared the station for shutdown. After the 175th day, the crew of Soyuz-32 returned home.
-end-
text928
Soyuz T-3, manned with Leonid Kizim, Gennadi Strekhalov and Oleg Markarov, was the second manned launch of the new Soyuz capsule, and the first three-man Soviet launch since Soyuz-11. Its mission was to repair the damage done to Salyut-6 over its lifetime of use. The cosmonauts worked non-stop repairing the hydropump which circulated antifreeze throughout the station, electricity commutator, electric telemetry system, onboard timers and a refueling system transformer. Their stay aboard the station was two weeks until the craft was flight worthy. They returned to Earth after a successful mission without incident.
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text930
Soyuz T-4, piloted by Vladimir Kovalyonok and Viktor Savinyikh, was launched into orbit to dock with the Salyut-6 station. Problems had developed on the station. One of the solar panels had stuck reducing the amount of electricity for the craft. Temperatures plummeted from the normal 21 to 10 degrees celsius. The cosmonauts needed to fix this problem as well as unpack the docked Progress-12 ferry.
Mar. 22, Soyuz-39 flew into orbit to dock with the station. Its crew was Vladimir Dzanibekov and Jugderdemidiyn Gurragcha. For eight days they stayed aloft before leaving their Soyuz T-4 comrades.
The last of the old design Soyuz, 40, was launched into orbit as a station mission. Aboard were Leonid Popov and Dimitru Prunariu. They experimented with the manufacture of solar cells in orbit. Again, this mission lasted only eight days.
After 75 uneventful days, the two cosmonauts rejoined their fellows back on Earth.
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text935x
Cosmos-1267 served as a test-flight of the Star module. Its mission was to dock with the unmanned Salyut-6 and expand its volume with a specialized work environment. The module took a month to dock, but did so successfully.
-end-
text934
Externally much like its Salyut civilian predecessors, Salyut-7 was launched into orbit by a D-1 booster. Retaining dimensions, this station added two rendezvous antennae and removed a docking target from the original design. Three furnaces, Kristall, Magma F and Korund, were added to the station as well as the SKR-02M spectrometer and RT4M X-ray telescope.
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text935
Anatoli Berezovoi and Valentin Lebedev were the first cosmonauts to visit the Salyut-7 station. They arrived in orbit aboard Soyuz T-5 and experienced a short time of space sickness. Their first tasks were to get the station in order for the upcoming flight of the French spationaute. Progress-13 was received and unloaded. As well, the men launched a small sub satellite, Iskra-2, through their airlock.
Vladimir Dzanibekov, Alexandr Ivanchenkov and Jean-Loup Chretien, aboard Soyuz T-6, docked with the station and joined their comrades. This was the first flight of a Frenchman in space. The crew of the T-6 performed several experiments including the imaging of the heart with an ecograph, bacteria observations using Cytos-2, welding and long-duration Earth photography. The crew of the T-6 returned home landing near Arkalyk.
Progress-14 was the next visitor to the station. New supplies were unloaded. During her stay, the cosmonauts were able to spacewalk for two and a half hours inspecting the exterior of the station.
Leonid Popov, Svetlana Savitskaya and Alexander Serebrov joined the station from their Soyuz T-7 capsule. This was the first flight of a Soviet woman since Valentina Tereshkova. After six days, the trio departed in the Soyuz T-5 capsule leaving the T-7 for the return of Berezovoi and Lebedev. These cosmonauts promptly redocked the T-7 on the main docking ring, so that Progresses 15 and 16 could supply the station. Before leaving the station, the men launched another Iskra satellite from their airlock.
The Soyuz T-7 capsule descended into a huge winter snowstorm in Kazakhstan. Their rescue helicopters had could not retrieve them, so a cargo helicopter had to be specially flown in. It could handle the winter weather. Regardless, the cosmonauts were happy to be on earth after 211 days.
-end-
text945x
Cosmos-1443 was carried into orbit by a Proton booster. With a mass of 18,000kg and length of 13m, this Star module nearly resembled the Salyut station. It had a large forward section and a recoverable smaller section in the rear of the module. Each section contained food and supplies for cosmonauts. However, the rear module could be used as an escape pod or supply ferry in times of need. The entire Star module could also be used as a space-tug lifting the station into a desired orbit. Cosmos-1443 docked with Salyut-7 on Mar. 10 adding 50 cubic meters of volume to the station. On Aug. 14, 1983, the Star module was undocked from the Salyut-7 station and ordered to maintain its own orbit. Nine days later, the recoverable rear section of the module reentered the atmosphere and was recovered near Arkalyk. Finally, the remaining section of Cosmos-1443 deorbited on Sept. 19.
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text943
Soyuz T-8, with Vladimir Titov, Gennadi Strekhalov and Alexander Serebrov aboard, was launched into orbit atop an A-2 booster. Their mission was to dock with the Salyut-7/Star module complex. However, a malfunction caused their rendezvous radar no to deploy. Effectively, they were blind, but Titov decided to try the first all-manual docking. By orbit 17 he was within 160m from Salyut, but promptly lost chase. The men had to return to Earth after two hectic days.
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text944
Vladimir Lyakhov and Alexander Alexandrov, aboard Soyuz T-9, were flown into orbit to rendezvous and dock with the Salyut-7/Star module complex. This occurred smoothly, and the cosmonauts immediately started to unload the equipment from the packed Star module. After three weeks, they had finally stowed everything in its proper place. As well, the men began their photographic survey of the Earth.
On Aug. 14, the Star module was undocked and ordered to maintain its own orbit. Then, the cosmonauts cleared the rear docking bay of Soyuz T-9 to make way for the docking of Progress-17 on Aug. 19. During the refueling by Progress, an oxidizer line sprang a leak threatening the lives of the cosmonauts and the station. The men retreated to the Soyuz capsule and prepared for an emergency evacuation. However, the situation was deemed nominal. Days later, one of the three solar panels failed reducing electricity. The temperature within the station fell to 10 degrees celsius and the humidity soured to 100 percent. Luckily, the Star module had carried extra solar panels, but the two cosmonauts were not trained to install them.
Soyuz T-10-1, with Vladimir Titov and Gennadi Strekhalov aboard, went into countdown with the intention of repairing the ailing station. However, at T minus 25 seconds, a fire started at the base of their A-2 booster when a valve jammed. Also, the important direct rocket controls had been severed by the blaze. The ground controllers could only manually use the emergency escape rockets to boost the cosmonauts free from certain doom. At T minus 0 seconds, the rocket exploded, and the ground controllers thought that they had lost the men. But, they noticed a pinprick of light that was the escape booster. They had saved Titov and Strekhalov. This incident, though, left the men aboard the station very nearly stranded.
Lyakhov and Alexandrov were ordered to stay an extra month in the station and perform the complex solar panel repairs themselves. In that attempt, Progress-18 was launched to provide the men with enough supplies to last them. It docked Oct. 22. Both cosmonauts performed two spacewalks in the repair attempt which succeeded by adding 50 percent more power to the complex.
Having completed 350 experiments, 150 days in space and survived near disasters, the cosmonauts returned to Earth.
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1a
The Olympus is the world's largest three-axis stabilized civilian communications satellite, weighing in at 1,450 kg., with solar arrays that span 26 meters. It is made by British Aerospace, and is a European Space Agency (ESA) satellite designed to facilitate research and development in several new areas of communications satellite technology. On board Olympus is the most powerful direct-broadcast TV system ever carried on a satellite. The original name for Olympus was L-Sat - as it was called when first given the go-ahead by the ESA in 1979.
This was the eleventh Ariane 3 to fly since its maiden launch in August, 1984.
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2a
A manned flight devoted to the launch of a top-secret military spy satellite and experiments for the military and Strategic Defense Initiative ("Stars Wars") program. On board for the first full flight status mission since the Challenger disaster were Brewster Shaw (Commander), Dick Richards (Pilot), Dave Leestma, Jim Adamson and Mark Brown (Mission Specialists).
After weather-caused launch delays the Shuttle Orbiter Columbia lifted off at 8:37 a.m. local time from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 8, 1989. By the time Columbia had completed its fifth Earth circuit it had reached a 184 x 191-statue-mile orbit. The USA-38 tactical/strategic reconnaissance satellite was deployed at 8:06 p.m. GST. The ten-ton satellite's high-resolution imaging systems are able to scan most of the Soviet land mass, as well as the Middle East.
One of the middeck experiments being carried out on Columbia was a human skull, outfitted with instruments designed to measure radiation doses in high-inclination orbits. On completion of its five-day mission, the Shuttle Orbiter returned to Earth at 06:38 a.m. local time on Sunday, August 13. The landing was without incident on lake bed Runway 17 at Edwards Air Force Base.
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3a
Columbia payload bay. Likely an AFP-731 (Air Force Program 731) maneuverable multi-purpose reconsat, equipped with a digital-imaging system and signals-intelligent radio receivers (SIGINT).
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4a
Columbia payload bay was the vehicle for this satellite which may have been either an electronic-intelligence gathering (ELINT) satellite, or part of a Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI "Star Wars") experiment.
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5a
A West German direct-broadcasting television satellite that was launched to replace the failed TV-Sat 1 (1988-95A).
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6a
5th launch of the Ariane 4, and the fourth with two solid and two liquid strap-on boosters. Its mission as the High Precision Parallax Collecting Satellite, the European Space Agency's astrometry satellite, was modified after problems prevented it from reaching geosynchronous orbit. Hipparcos was able to reach its second orbit by using on-board maneuvering thrusters.
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7a
The third Navstar Block 2A Global Positioning System (GPS) satellite. It is also fitted with equipment designed to monitor ground-based nuclear explosions.
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8a
After the proposed Unisat project collapsed British Satellite Broadcasting (BSB) was awarded the UK government license to operate a national direct-broadcast TV satellite system. Almost 600 million pounds (UK currency) was invested by the privately-owned company to establish a two-satellite service by 1990. The Marcopolo 1 satellite is equipped with Ku-band (14/12 GHz)
transponders and was launched by a Delta 1 (4925).
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9a
The final launch of a Titan 34D rocket, probably carrying DSCS military communications satellites.
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10a
Part of the payload on the final Titan 34D launch. Third-generation Defense Communications Satellite System, US strategic communications satellite.
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11a
The fourth Japanese Geostationary Meteorological Satellite (GMS), designed to provide cloud-cover imagery and other data as part of the World Weather Watch program.
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12a
Navigation Technology Satellite boosted into orbit by a refurbished Titan 2.
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13a
US Navy communications satellite, last of the FltSatCom fleet. Owned by TRW, the F8 was launched on the last government-owned General Dynamics Atlas-Centaur, and the 58th success out of 69 launches since 1962.
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14a
The manned flight Space Shuttle Orbiter Atlantis. The mission was devoted principally to launching the Galileo Jupiter-explorer, which was released from the Orbiter's payload bay just over six hours after lift-off. On board the Space Shuttle were Commander Don Williams and Mission Specialist Shannon Lucid, as well as Mike McCulley (Pilot), Franklin Chang-Diaz, and Ellen Baker (Mission Specialists). Atlantis lifted off from Pad 39B at Kennedy Space Center at 12:54 p.m., EDT, on October 18, 1989.
An IMAX motion-picture camera was on board to record footage of the mission, particularly highlighting Galileo's deployment. Experiments during the flight included a Polymer Morphology experiment developed by the 3M Corporation and an ice-crystal experiment proposed by student Tracy Peters, formerly of Ygnacio High School in California. Ozone testing and lightning experiments were other payload duties carried out aboard the Atlantis' mission. Medical consultations between astronauts in space and NASA physicians on earth were re-established on the STS-34 flight, and designated to be a feature of all future Shuttle missions.
The Orbiter landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California at 16:34:00 GMT on 23 October, 1989. It had been the world's 128th manned spaceflight, and 5th by the Atlantis.
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15a
A Jupiter-explorer, launched from the Shuttle Atlantis and due to arrive at the planet in 1995. After its release from the payload bay, Galileo headed inwards towards the Sun with Venus as its first destination. Due to energy limitation imposed by its IUS upper stage, the explorer's route to Jupiter is a circuitous Venus-Earth-Earth-Gravity Assist (VEEGA) trajectory.
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16a
The fifth of a planned nine Block 2A Navstar GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites. Fitted with additional equipment for monitoring ground nuclear explosions.
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17a
Launched by an Ariane V34, Intelsat 6 was the first of a new-generation commercial communications satellite. It is equipped with 38 C-band transponders and ten Ku-band transponders capable of handing 24,000 simultaneous telephone calls and three TV channels.
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18a
A NASA science satellite known as the Cosmic Background Explorer. The launch vehicle was a Delta 190, from Vandenberg Air Force Base.
COBE was the first satellite dedicated to studying cosmic radiation... seemingly emitted during the "Big Bang", a theoretical beginning of the Universe. COBE's sensitive infrared instruments had to be cooled by 600 liters of liquid helium, reducing its lifetime to about a year.
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19a
The Shuttle mission STS-33/Discovery which lifted off from the Kennedy Space Center at 07:24 Eastern Standard Time on Wednesday 22 November, 1989. Its original plan of four days of activities turned out to be five, and was on behalf of the US Department of Defense. The altitudes reached by Discovery were far higher than average for the Shuttle.
Primary payload of the Shuttle was kept secret, although it is known to have deployed a SIGINT (Signal Intelligence) satellite, used for eavesdropping on radio transmissions from the USSR and China. It was rumored that SDI (Strategic Defense Initiative - "Star Wars") experiments were also being carried out aboard the Orbiter.
Commander of the flight was US Air Force Colonel Fred Gregory, with Pilot USAF Colonel John Blaha. Mission Specialists included US Navy Captain Manley Carter and civilians Story Musgrave and Kathy Thornton.
High winds at Edwards Air Force Base on Sunday 26 November delayed the landing until Monday. Continued weather problems on Monday made it necessary to land Discovery on hard-surface Runway 04, not dry lake bed Runway 17 as originally planned. Due to the high orbital altitude maintained during this mission, it took about 20 minutes longer for the Shuttle to re-enter the Earth's atmosphere following the deorbit burn.
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20a
A large, signals-intelligence (SIGINT) satellite that was launched from Discovery's payload bay on 23 November 1989. The satellite is capable of eavesdropping on voice, telemetry, and other transmissions from Soviet and Chinese military and diplomatic sources.
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21a
Block 2A Navstar GPS Satellite launched by a McDonnell Douglas Delta 2s. Another in the series of satellites in the joint civil military Global Positioning System. Fitted with equipment to monitor ground nuclear explosions.
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22a
Launched from Cape Canaveral AFS by a Commercial Titan/PAM-D2. A British strategic communications satellite equipped with transponders operating at C-band (8/7 GHz) and UHF (310/225 MHz). The Skynet 4A satellite is also outfitted with experimental equipment relating to the design of future military comsats.
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23a
Communications satellite owned by the Japanese Communications Company. It has 32 transponders operating at Ku-band (14/12 GHz) and was launched from Cape Canaveral AFS by a Commercial Titan/Orbus 7S at 12:07 a.m. on 01 January, 1990.
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24a
Space Shuttle mission STS-32/Columbia took off from Kennedy Space Center on 9 January 1990, on an ambitious flight to deploy the Syncom 4-F5 communications satellite for the US Navy and to retrieve the LDEF (Long Duration Exposure Facility), which had been deployed by the Shuttle Challenger during mission 41-C in April 1984. On board the Columbia was Dan Brandenstein (Commander), Jim Wetherbee (Pilot), and Mission Specialists Bonnie Dunbar, Marsha Ivins and David Low.
The Syncom 4-F5 satellite was launched on the second day of the mission; the last in a series of five such comsats built by the Hughes company for the US Navy. The LDEF retrieved by STS-32 was a twelve-sided, twelve-ton free-flyer that was within weeks of descending too low for capturing. The initial part of the rendezvous was handled by computer, and once in position the Orbiter's mechanical arm was attached to the grapple fixture on the LDEF, making it possible to maneuver the satellite into Columbia's payload bay. There was a long list of secondary payloads aboard, principally a combination of microgravity experiments, including protein crystal-growth and medical objectives to undertake.
STS-32 landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California at 09:36:36 a.m., GMT/20 January 1990, having elapsed time of 10 days, 21 hours, 01 minute and 38 seconds. It was the 130th manned spaceflight.
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25a
Strategic communications satellite, deployed from the Columbia's payload bay as part of STS-32. The satellite is owned by Hughes Communications Inc. and leased to the US Navy. It is equipped with transponders operating at UHF (about 250-300 MHz).
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26a
SPOT (Satellite Probatoire d'Observation de la Terre), a French commercial remote-sensing satellite providing images with 10-20 meters resolution from its sun-synchronous orbit. It was launched by Ariane 40 (V35).
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27a
A British-built (University of Surrey) experimental satellite launched alongside SPOT 2. It is equipped with a packet-radio transponder and sensors for studying cosmic-rays and radiation.
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28a
Launched alongside SPOT 2, Oscar 15 is a British-built (University of Surrey) experimental satellite equipped with radiation sensors, experimental solar cells, an experimental transputer and an Earth-imaging camera.
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29a
Technology satellite owned by Amsat North America and launched alongside SPOT 2 by the Ariane 40 (V35). Microsat 1 provides digital store/dump radio communications using packet radio (also known as Pacsat).
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30a
Launched on 22 January alongside SPOT 2, Microsat 2 is a technology satellite belonging to Amsat-Brazil (Bramsat). It carries a voice encoder to transmit information and is alternatively called DOVE (Digital Orbiting Voice Encoder).
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31a
Part of the SPOT 2 Microsat's group, this technology satellite belongs to Amsat North America and is alternatively known as Webersat, having been built by Weber State College of Ogden, Utah. It is equipped with a magnetometer, an imaging system and a visible-light spectrometer.
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32a
Microsat 4 was launched alongside SPOT 2 and the other Oscar satellites. It is a technology satellite belonging to Amsat-Argentina and it provides digital store/dump radio communications using packet-radio.
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33a
Launched from Kagoshima Space Center in Japan, the MUSES-A spacecraft with the tiny Hiten probe was Japan's first lunar flight. A small lunar satellite, Hagoromo, was released on 18 March, during the spacecraft's first swing-by at 16,472 kilometers above the moon.
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34a
Launched from Cape Canaveral AFS on a Delta 2 (6925)/PAM-D. "Block 2" navigation satellite in the joint civil military Global Positioning System (GPS). Outfitted with additional equipment for monitoring ground nuclear explosions.
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35a
Chinese communications satellite launched at 12:27 p.m. on 4 February from Xichang, PRC. It is equipped with transponders operating at C-band (6/4 GHz). It was placed at 98 degrees east.
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36a
The second Marine Observation Satellite, launched from Tanegashima, Japan by an H-1. It is a remote-sensing satellite studying in particular the world's oceans. It was sent into space with two sub-satellites - DEBUT and JAS-1B, which were then renamed Orizuru and Fuji.
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37a
Japanese-built space technology - Deployable Boom and Umbrella Test - launched alongside Momo 1b.
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38a
A small satellite designed for use by amateur radio operators around the world. It was carried into orbit alongside Momo 1b.
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39a
Launched on a Delta 2 from Cape Canaveral as part of the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI "Star Wars") program. LACE refers to Low-power Atmospheric Composition Experiment - a satellite for studying the way in which the atmosphere distorts laser beams directed from the ground into space, and a second experiment to study ultraviolet radiation emitted from rocket exhaust-plumes during launch. LACE was intended to operate for about 30 months.
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40a
Launched with the LACE satellite under the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI "Star Wars") program, the Relay Mirror Experiment (RME) was used to reflect laser beams from the ground onto a "target", also on the ground. A second experiment aboard the RME studied vibration characteristics of the satellite.
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41a
The STS-36/Atlantis mission had been delayed several times but was finally launched at 07:50 a.m. GMT on Wednesday 28 February, 1990. It was a secret Department of Defense-sponsored mission with the primary purpose of deploying a dual role AFP-731 reconnaissance/intelligence satellite into an average 110-nautical-mile low-Earth orbit.
Aboard Atlantis was John Creighton (Commander) who had flown as Pilot of the 51-G/Discovery mission in June 1985. Pilot on STS-36 was John Casper and Mission Specialists Pierre Thuot, Dave Hilmers and Mike Mullane.
The 37,300 pound AFP-731 satellite was deployed during the Shuttle's 18th orbit, about 27 hours after lift-off. It is possible that a new lightweight deployment device known as the Stabilized Payload Deployment System (SPDS) was used to move the satellite out of the payload bay.
Although threatened by surface crosswinds in excess of 25 knots at Edwards AFB, the Shuttle Atlantis managed a landing at 10:09 a.m. local time on Sunday 4 March. The AFP-731 satellite broke up in orbit several days after it was deployed, with sizable fragments re-entering the atmosphere on 19 March. Soviet authorities were displeased as there was a strong likelihood of debris landing in Soviet territory since the satellite's high inclination orbit covered most of the populated area of the Soviet Union.
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42a
Air Force Program (AFP)-731 maneuverable reconnaissance satellite launched by the Shuttle Atlantis on 1 March, 1990. It was equipped with a digital imaging system and signals-intelligence (SIGINT) radio receivers. USA-53 was reported to have broken up on 7 March.
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43a
Launched by a Commercial Titan from Cape Canaveral AFS at 11:52 am, 14 March. A wiring error left the international communications satellite stranded in a useless 145 x 350 kilometer orbit after it failed to separate from the Titan second stage in low-Earth orbit. The eventual persuasion of Intelsat 6-F3 to separate resulted in the loss of its Star solid-propellant perigee kick motor (PKM) and caused the errant orbit.
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44a
Launched aboard the Hiten/MUSES-A from Kagoshima, Japan on 24 January 1990. Hagoromo is a small lunar-science satellite propelled into circumlunar orbit by an onboard motor.
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45a
Another "Block 2" navigation satellite in the joint civil military Global Navigation Satellite System (GPS). USA-54 was launched from Cape Canaveral AFS at 2:45 a.m. on 26 March, 1990 by a Delta 2. It is fitted with equipment for monitoring ground nuclear explosions.
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46a
Israeli space-technology development satellite, launched from Palmachin Air Force Base near Tel Aviv. The two-stage, eleven-meter high Shavit solid-propellant booster carried Offeq 2 across the Mediterranean Sea and into its 140-degree-inclination orbit with the parameters of 210 x 1500 kilometers.
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47a
Pegsat was the first air-launched satellite. Delivery was conducted by the commercial OSC/Hercules Pegasus vehicle, dropped from a NASA/Boeing NB-52 "mother-ship" over the Pacific Ocean. Pegsat carried an instrumentation package designed to measure the performance of Pegasus during ascent and injection into orbit, as well as two barium-release experiments for ionospheric studies. Pegsat is the product of a joint NASA/DARPA project.
48a
Global Message Relay Satellite used by the US Navy for controlling and interrogating land-based and sea-based sensors. Delivered into orbit with Pegsat from the Boeing NB-52/Pegasus.
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49a
The first commercial satellite launch by China, and the first time a "second-hand" communications satellite was sent into space. Carried by a Long March 3, Asiasat 1 lifted off from Xichang, PRC at 1:30 p.m. on 7 April. Owned by the Asia Satellite Telecommunications Company, the satellite's transponders operate at commercial C band (6/4 GHz).
50a
Three military communications satellites launched from an Atlas-E vehicle. Experiments include the Polar Orbit Geomagnetic Survey equipment for mapping the Earth's magnetic field, the experimental Solid-State Recorder for data storage, and an experimental satellite release-latch on the Altair stage of the launching rocket.
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51a
Launched from Vandenberg AFB as part of the P87-2 Stacksat technology experiments payload. The USA-57 satellite is a transceiver experiment to study ionospheric irregularities that affect radio transmission.
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52a
One of three satellites launched from the Atlas-E/Altair space vehicle as part of the P87-2 Stacksat space technology experiments payload. USA-58 (SCE) is a Selective Communications Experiment, a store/dump communications package.
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53a
The re-launch of what was originally known as Palapa B-2 (1984-11D). The satellite had been "lost" when its perigee kick motor (PKM) misfired after being deployed from Shuttle Challenger in 1984. Palapa B-2 was rescued and returned to Earth by the crew of Shuttle mission 51A/Discovery in November 1984. It was refurbished by Hughes and sold back to Indonesia. Launched by a Delta 2 from Cape Canaveral AFS on 13 April at 11:31 p.m. Palapa B-2R is a communications satellite operating at C-band (6 4 GHz).
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54a
STS-31/Discovery was the piloted mission devoted to launching the Hubble Space Telescope, an orbiting astronomical telescope equipped with a 2.4-meter-diameter primary mirror.
Discovery lifted off from Kennedy Space Center at 12:34 p.m., 24 April 1990. Mission Commander was USAF Colonel Loren Shriver, USMC Colonel Charles Bolden was the Pilot, and Mission Specialists included Bruce McCandless, Steven Hawley and Kathryn Sullivan.
The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) weighs in a 13 tons, measuring 43 feet by 14 feet and was deployed on day 2 of the mission, taking place on orbit 16 as planned. News broke on 14 June that Hubble was not operating correctly in that it was unable to focus its large primary mirror correctly due to a flaw in its design. The HST, which is expected to operate in low-Earth orbit for about 15 years, has been optimistically determined by astronomers to be able to perform 50-60 percent of its originally-intended mission.
The world's 133rd manned spaceflight, STS-31 landed on concrete Runway 22 at Edwards Air Force Base in California at 14:49:57 GMT on 29 April, 1990. The Orbiter had covered 2,068,213 nautical miles and completed 76 orbits within its 5-day mission.
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55a
The Hubble Space Telescope was deployed from the payload bay of the Shuttle Discovery at 6:59 p.m. on 25 April 1990. A design flaw prevents its 2.4-meter-diameter primary mirror from focusing correctly, limiting its resolution to that of a ground-based telescope.
There are five instruments on board the Hubble, with three hardly affected by the "spherical aberration" in its mirrors. The JPL-furnished Wide Field Planetary Camera that would have obtained the best images is rendered virtually useless by the malfunctioning telescope.
The HST program is managed by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland, with scheduling and observation time being handled by the Space Telescope Science Institute in Baltimore. The European Space Agency is contributing 15 percent of the overall cost in return for a proportional share of observing time. Hubble is expected to operate for about 15 years in low-Earth orbit.
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56a
Multiple Access Communications Satellite - a pair of experimental US military comsats launched by a Scout from Vandenberg AFB at 5:50 p.m. on 9 May 1990.
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57a
ROSAT is Roentgen Satellite, a joint US - German venture for conducting an all-sky survey of ultraviolet and X-ray astronomical sources. The United Kingdom provided some of the onboard sensors. ROSAT was launched from Cape Canaveral AFS by a Delta 2 at 10:48 p.m., 1 June 1990.
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58a
USA-59 was carried skyward by the second Titan 4 launch - the first having been in June 1989. USA-59 is a USAF multi-purpose reconnaissance satellite. The Titan 4 left Cape Canaveral AFS at 10:48 p.m., 1 June 1990.
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59a
A McDonnell Douglas commercial launch of India's INSAT-1D. It was the last launch by a Delta 1. Insat is a multipurpose communications and meteorological satellite providing TV, telephony, meteorology, radio and private network services to the Indian subcontinent.
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60a
Intelsat 6-F4 was placed into low-Earth orbit by a Commercial Titan 03. Launch time was at 11:19 a.m. 23 June, 1990 from Cape Canaveral AFS. Intelsat 6 is a commercial communications satellite equipped with transponders operating at C-band (6/4 GHz) and Ku-band (14/12 GHz).
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text8
Launched atop a Thor-Able 1 booster, this pioneer mission, 34.2kg, was designed to measure both the Earth and Moon's magnetic fields. However an error in burnout velocity and angle stopped the probe from reaching the Moon. Instead, the mission provided valuable data on Earth's radiation band, hydromagnetic oscillations of the magnetic field, size and speed of micrometeors in interplanetary space and information on interplanetary magnetic fields. The probe fell to Earth Oct. 12, 1958.
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text9
An error in burnout velocity and angle of the Juno II rocket caused Pioneer 3 to miss the Moon and fall back to Earth Dec. 7, 1958. This mission was meant to provide researchers with information about radiation levels in space. But, the 5.9kg probe discovered a second radiation belt surrounding the Earth.
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text14
Sent aloft by a Juno II booster, this 6.1kg satellite measured radiation levels on its Earth to Moon trajectory. The probe passed within 37,300 miles of the Moon on March 4, 1959 and out into a heliocentric orbit.
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text16
This 64.4kg satellite was launched by a Thor-Able III booster and was designed to study particles and Earth's meteorology. The probe helped to discover three distinct radiation bands, an electric current surrounding the Earth and retrieved several cloud cover images. It fell back into the atmosphere prior to July, 1961.
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text20
This 45.4kg magnesium sphere was launched atop a Vanguard rocket and was solar-powered. The satellite was fitted with a magnetometer boom that provided comprehensive data about Earth's magnetic field and the location of the lower edge of the radiation belts. As well, the craft counted micrometeorite impacts before its final transmission on Dec. 8, 1959.
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text22
Explorer 7, 41.5kg, was launched into orbit by a Juno II booster. The satellite, which fell to Earth July 16, 1989, transmitted data on energetic particles, radiation and magnetic storms. The craft recorded the first micrometeorite impact and penetration of a probe's sensor.
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text25
A Thor-Able IV rocket launched the 43kg, 66cm diameter sphere into interplanetary space between the orbits of Earth and Venus. The probe tested the ability of long-range communications and determined the strength of Earth's magnetic fields.
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text26
Tiros 1 served as the first successful weather satellite in history. With a mass of 122.5kg, the satellite studied global weather conditions and planetary surface features. Some 22,952 color photographs of the Earth were transmitted back to ground-based researchers.
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text35
Demonstrating the ability to transmit global radio signals, the 30m sphere reflected a pre-recorded message from President Eisenhower across the US. Originally launched by a Thor-Delta rocket, the satellite fell to Earth May 24, 1968.
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text42
Tiros 2 provided test information about television and infrared equipment transmission of meteorological phenomena. A Thor-Delta booster lifted the 127kg payload into orbit.
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text50
A Scout 4 booster, fueled by an all solid propellant, lifted the 3.7m sphere into orbit where it measured the density of Earth's atmosphere. The satellite re-entered the atmosphere April 9, 1964.
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text60
Explorer 11, in its elliptical orbit, searched the cosmos for high energy gamma rays and their sources. The 37.2kg satellite also mapped the distribution of the gamma ray sources. The craft was placed into orbit by a four stage Juno II rocket.
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text65
At 129.3kg, Tiros 3 became the first fully functional weather satellite and a precursor to more complex systems. The satellite provided ground-based researchers with photographs of tropical weather patterns and discovered Hurricane Esther of the 1961 hurricane season. A Thor-Delta rocket lifted the probe into orbit.
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text68
This craft identified the Van Allen Belts as Earth's magnetosphere, and was the first of many to study solar winds, interplanetary magnetic fields and energetic particles in space. The 37.6kg craft was placed into orbit by a Thor-Delta rocket. It finally fell to the Earth in Sep., 1963.
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text69
This mission was meant to be a flight-test for lunar spacecraft, but the Agena section of the Atlas-Agena B rocket failed to restart forcing the satellite into low Earth orbit. The 306.2kg craft carried instruments to measure cosmic rays, magnetic fields and energetic particles in space. On Aug. 30, 1961, the satellite re-entered Earth's atmosphere.
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text70
Primarily designed to be a test-flight for the Scout 6 rocket, Explorer 13 also carried a 84.8kg payload that measured micrometeoroid impact and penetration. However, the third stage of the rocket failed to ignite leaving the satellite in a dangerously low orbit. The craft finally fell to Earth Aug. 28, 1961.
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text81
Ranger 2 was to be a flight-test of spacecraft systems for future interplanetary missions, but a defective roll gyro in the Agena section of the Atlas-Agena B prevented the satellite from achieving the desired orbit. The 306.2kg craft was down Nov. 20, 1961.
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text86
A booster malfunction in the Atlas-Agena B rocket sent Ranger 3 past its lunar destination by 36,798km. The 329.8kg probe was meant to rough-land on the lunar surface and transmit television pictures back to Earth.
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text87
This satellite was another building block towards a global weather monitoring system. Indeed, based on data radioed back from the 129.3kg satellite, the US Weather Bureau distributed radio facsimile transmissions of cloud maps. It was lifted into orbit by a Thor-Delta rocket.
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text1188
On May 5, 1961, a 4,000lb Mercury capsule (MR-3), Freedom 7, was launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida in the nose of a Redstone rocket. Navy Commander Alan B. Shepard became the first American astronaut, reaching the fringes of space in a suborbital flight that carried him 116 miles up at a maximum speed of 5,100mph. The flight of Freedom 7 was an important one in the Mercury Project, a project intended to culminate in a successful manned orbital flight. Thus far, the American space program lagged behind the Soviet program. Soviet Cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin had already orbited the Earth once in Vostok 1 on April 12 of the same year. The Americans were anxious to send an astronaut into orbital flight as soon as possible. Shepard's suborbital flight, and Virgil Grissom's later suborbital flight in the Liberty Bell, were cautious but necessary steps in achieving that goal.
The flight of Freedom 7 was counted a complete success. The firing of the Redstone rocket and separation of rocket from capsule went exactly as planned. Shepard tested the manual controls of the capsule and verified his ability to control pitch, yaw and roll of the craft. He experienced five minutes of weightlessness at maximum altitude with no ill effects, before firing retro-rockets to slow Freedom 7 and maneuvering the capsule into reentry attitude. As the capsule entered the atmosphere Shepard rapidly went from weightlessness to a gravity of 10Gs, or ten times that experienced on Earth. A parachute slowed the capsule's descent to the Atlantic Ocean, and fifteen minutes after launch Shepard and Freedom 7 were picked up by helicopter.
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text88
On February 20, 1962 Marine Lieutenant Colonel John Herschel Glenn rode Friendship 7 into space to become the first American astronaut, and the third human being in history to achieve orbital flight. Atlas rocket booster 109D launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida sent the Mercury MA-6 capsule on its journey. Finally, after thirteen unmanned launches (including seven launch failures), four flights carrying animals, and two manned suborbital flights, the Mercury Program had reached its goal. The whole world watched and cheered the flight from start to finish, in sharp contrast to the earlier, more secretive proceedings of the Soviet Vostok 1 and Vostok 2 missions.
Glenn's capsule went into orbit at the incredible speed of 17,545mph, and he experienced weightlessness for all but sixteen minutes of his four-hour and fifty-six-minute flight. But the extended period of weightlessness had no ill effects on the astronaut. He operated the spacecraft's manual controls and ate his first meal in space ("tubed" beef, vegetables, applesauce and malted milk balls) with no discomfort. Glenn reported seeing the lights of Perth, Australia, which had been turned on as a friendly hello in his honor.
Friendship 7 made three orbits of 88.29 minutes each before Glenn fired the retro-rockets that would slow the capsule down and bring it out of orbit. During the capsule's rapid descent, ground control detected that Friendship 7's heat shield had come loose during the flight. If the heat shield fell off the flight would be a catastrophe; the capsule would burn up and Glenn would perish. Glenn was instructed not to jettison the retro-rocket package in the hope that it would hold the shield in place. The plan worked, though Glenn could see the retro-rocket package burning up during the descent and the heat shield reached a temperature of 3,000 degrees Fahrenheit. Friendship 7 splashed down safely and was recovered from the Caribbean four hours, 55 minutes and 23 seconds after liftoff.
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text91
A Thor-Delta rocket boosted the 207.7kg satellite into Earth orbit to study the relationship of the planet to the Sun. Approximately 1,000 hours of data on solar behavior was transmitted to the ground based researchers including the activities and measurements of 75 solar flares. The satellite reentered the atmosphere Oct. 8, 1981.
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text97
After 64 hours of spaceflight, the probe impacted with the far side lunar surface. The craft was designed to transmit data back to the Earth, but the failure of the central computer and sequencer system rendered all instruments useless. An Atlas-Agena B lifted the satellite to the Moon.
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text100
The first international cooperative launch, between the US and UK, 59.9kg Ariel 1 carried six experiments to study the ionosphere, solar radiation and cosmic rays. Launched by a Thor-Delta booster, the craft fell to Earth May 24, 1976.
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text1181
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text111
The 129.3kg Tiros 5 was launched upon a Thor-Delta rocket that placed the satellite into a high Earth orbit. The satellite continued the development of a series of meteorological satellites, and performed observations of northern latitudes including ice breakup and storms.
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text115
The first privately built satellite, by AT&T, was lifted into orbit by a Thor-Delta booster. Designed to test global communications, Telstar 1, at 77.1kg, transmitted the first telephone and television experiments from space.
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text116
A Thor-Delta booster launched Echo AVT-2 into a suborbital flight where the 256kg probe tested ground to satellite communications. Included in the experiment package was an inflation of a balloon whose surface was tested by radar.
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text127
109 days after being launched by an Atlas-Agena B, the 202.8kg Mariner 2 passed Venus on Dec. 14, 1962 at 21,648 miles becoming the first successful interplanetary probe. The instrument package provided invaluable information on solar winds, cosmic dust density and particle and magnetic field variations.
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text133
A Thor-Delta booster lifted the 127.5kg satellite into Earth orbit where it studied the 1962 hurricane season and provided high-quality images of cloud coverage.
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text135
Cooperatively launched by the US and Canada, the 145.2kg Alouette 1 was lifted into orbit by a Thor-Agena B booster. The satellite measured variations in the ionosphere and electron density distribution. Some 13 British, Canadian and US stations received valuable data from the probe.
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text137
The 40.4kg satellite, launched by a Thor-Delta rocket, was placed into a highly elliptical orbit where it trapped corpuscular radiation, solar particles, cosmic radiation and solar winds. The craft fell to Earth July 1, 1966.
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text1182
Manned Orbital flight with Walter M. Schirra.
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text141
Launched atop an Atlas-Agena B rocket, the 342.5kg probe passed with 450 miles of the lunar surface. The craft was meant to rough land on the Moon, however, a power supply failure, 8 hours and 44 minutes into flight, caused the craft to veer off course. Ultimately, the probe achieved a heliocentric orbit.
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text145
The 44.5kg satellite, launched by a Thor-Delta booster, was to study the location, composition and decay rate of an artificial radiation belt caused by a high-altitude nuclear explosion over the Pacific. However, the Despin device failed, but the craft did transmit useful information to ground researchers. The craft fell to Earth Oct. 5, 1967.
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text156
The 78kg satellite was lifted into orbit by a Thor-Delta booster. Its mission was to test intercontinental microwave communication by a low-altitude repeater satellite. But, the craft developed a power failure. Engineers overcame the difficulty and successfully demonstrated the device with over 500 communication tests.
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text158
A Scout 14 rocket lifted the 100.7kg satellite into orbit where it measured micrometeoroid puncture hazard to structure samples. This was the first statistical test, and the flux level fell between the statistical extremes.
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text164
Placed into geosynchronous orbit by a Thor-Delta rocket, Syncom 1 was meant to test communications with a satellite in such an orbit. The first tests were successful, but when the apogee motor was commanded to fire, all communications were lost.
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text169
The 183.7kg satellite measured the density, composition, pressure and temperature of the Earth's atmosphere. As well, it discovered a neutral belt of helium surrounding the Earth. Explorer 17 reentered the atmosphere Nov. 24, 1966.
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text173
A Thor-Delta rocket lifted AT&T's second Telstar mission into orbit where the satellite conducted wideband communication experiments and transmitted color and black and white television images to Great Britain and France.
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text1183
Fourth manned orbital flight with Gordon L. Cooper.
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text192
Launched on a Thor-Delta rocket, Tiros 7 continued the development of a global meteorological system. The 134.7kg satellite provided some 30,000 cloud cover images including those of Hurricane Ginny.
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text202
Placed into a geosynchronous orbit by a Thor-Delta rocket, the 39kg satellite tested the transmission of voice, teletype, facsimile and data communications.
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text222
This was the first of a series Interplanetary Monitoring Platforms designed to study interplanetary space during the solar cycle. The 62.6kg satellite, which was lifted into orbit by a Thor-Delta rocket, helped discover a section of high-energy radiation beyond the Van Allen Belts. As well, the craft found a stationary shock wave created by the collision of the solar wind and the Earth's geomagnetic field. Explorer 18 fell to Earth Dec. 30, 1965.
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text223
This mission served as a structural integrity test for the Atlas-Centaur booster. The craft carried 907kg of sensors, telemetry and assorted equipment.
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text230
A Scout 24 rocket launched the 3.7m diameter sphere into Earth orbit. Because of a beacon failure, the 7.7kg satellite needed to be optically tracked as it studied the density of the atmosphere. The craft reentered the atmosphere May 10, 1981.
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text231
This satellite was a continuation of the development of a global meteorological satellite system. Launched from a Delta 22 booster, the 120.2kg Tiros 8 tested the Automatic Picture Transmission camera system that transmitted the images directly and inexpensively to ground stations.
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text240
The Relay 2, lifted into orbit by a Delta 23 rocket, completed more than 230 tests of various communications systems and captured over 600 hours of radiation data. The 85.3kg craft was capable of television, 300 one-way voice transmissions or 12 two-way narrowband communication.
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text241
Launched atop a Thor-Agena B rocket, the 348.4kg, 41.1m diameter rigidized sphere tested passive communications of radio, teletype and facsimile. The data obtained from the tests were exchanged with USSR. The satellite fell to Earth June 7, 1969.
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text242
This mission served as a flight test of the Block II Saturn and the first test of the LOX/LH2 fueled second stage. The craft reentered the atmosphere Apr. 30, 1966.
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text245
After 65.5 hours of flight, the Ranger 6 probe impacted with the lunar surface on the west side of the Sea of Tranquillity within 32.2km of the original target. The 364.7kg probe was to send television images back to Earth before the impact, but none were received. An Atlas-Agena B launched the craft on its course.
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text253
The 74.8kg satellite, the second cooperative effort between the US and UK, was launched atop a Scout 25 rocket. It carried three experiments to measure galactic radio noise. The satellite reentered the atmosphere Nov. 18, 1967.
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text257
The Titan II rocket launched the Gemini capsule in a test of the launch vehicle and spacecraft configuration during launch to the orbital insertion phase. The craft reentered the atmosphere Apr. 12, 1964.
-end-
text264
This mission was the first flight test of an unmanned model of the Apollo spacecraft. The craft reentered the atmosphere June 1, 1964.
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text285
Launched atop an Atlas-Agena B, the lunar probe impacted with the Moon's surface, at the Sea of Clouds, after a flight of 68 hours, 35 minutes and 55 seconds. The 364.7kg craft relayed 4,316 high-quality images back to ground-based researchers.
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text294
The 65.8kg satellite, launched by a Delta 25, was placed into a geosynchronous orbit. There it conducted several communications tests and provided live television coverage of the Tokyo Olympic games.
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text299
Launched into orbit by a Scout 30, the 44.5kg satellite studied the radio soundings of the upper ionosphere as part of the Topside Sounder program.
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text300
A Thor-Agena B rocket propelled the meteorological satellite into an Earth oriented orbit where it provided complete global cloud images. The 376.5kg satellite transmitted over 27,000 high-quality images including images sent by the Automatic Picture Transmission system sent to low-cost ground station. The craft fell to Earth May 16, 1974.
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text302
The 487.2 OGO satellite provided varying quality data from its 20 experiments. Its mission was to study geophysical and solar phenomena. However, its boom deployed in error obscuring its view of the planet. An Atlas-Agena B placed the craft into orbit.
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text308
A Delta 26 rocket lifted the satellite into orbit as part of the Interplanetary Monitoring Platform system. However, the satellite failed to reach the proper apogee for its study of the magnetic fields, radiation and solar winds. The craft reentered the atmosphere Jan. 30, 1966.
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text314
This 52.6kg Beacon Explorer studied the ionospheric structure and interaction between the solar winds and the ionosphere. Low-cost ground stations across the globe received uncoded radio broadcasts from the satellite. As well, on Oct. 11, 1964 the satellite was tracked by laser. The craft was launched from a Scout 32.
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text324
Lifted from the Earth by an Atlas-Agena D, the Mariner 3, 260.8kg, was meant to perform a Mars flyby. However, its fiberglass shroud failed to jettison preventing the solar panels from extending. As well, its navigational points, the Sun and Canopus, were not acquired. The probe was lost 9 hours after launch.
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text325
As a test of meteoroid penetration of various substances, the 133.8kg satellite was lifted into orbit by a Scout 33 booster. The craft fell to Earth June 29, 1983.
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text327
The first dual payload (Air Density/Injun) was launched into orbit by a Scout 34 rocket. The satellites, Explorer 24 and 25, studied the relationship between air-density and radiation in the upper atmosphere. The 8.6kg Explorer 24 fell to Earth Oct. 18, 1968 while the 34kg sister satellite maintained orbit.
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text329
The 260.8kg probe, lifted on course by an Atlas-Agena D, flewby Mars July 14, 1965 with its closest approach at 9,846km. The craft transmitted 22 images of Mars back to Earth.
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text335
This mission served as a vehicle flight test of the Atlas-Centaur rocket. The craft carried a mass model of the Surveyor probe. The craft fell to Earth Dec. 12, 1964.
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text338
A Scout 35 booster launched the 115.2kg Italian, US cooperative satellite. The craft studied air density and ionosphere characteristics. Launched by an Italian launch crew, the craft fell to Earth Sept. 13, 1965.
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text340
Launched atop a Delta 27 booster, the 45.8kg satellite, with five experiment packages, studied the actions of high energy particles.
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text345
The 138.3kg satellite was the first of the Weather Bureau's "Cartwheel" design weather satellites. The configuration provided increased coverage of global cloud cover. The satellite was launched by a Delta 28 rocket.
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text348
Lifted into orbit by a Delta 29 booster, the 244.9kg satellite was the second to study the frequency and energy of solar electromagnetic radiation in the ultraviolet, X-ray and gamma-ray regions of the spectrum. The craft reentered the atmosphere Aug. 9, 1989.
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text352
Launched by a Saturn 1 rocket, the 1,451.5kg satellite studied the magnitude and direction of meteoroids in near-Earth orbit. The satellite fell to Earth Sept. 17, 1978.
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text285
Set on course by an Atlas-Agena B booster, the 364.7kg lunar probe transmitted 7,137 high-quality images back to Earth before impacting with the lunar surface at the Sea of Tranquillity. The probe's flight time was 64.54 hours.
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text353
An Atlas-Agena B lifted the 364.7kg lunar probe from the Earth. The craft relayed 5,814 high-quality images 200 of which were transmitted live via commercial television. The probe's flight time was 64.52 hours before impact.
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text380
This was the first manned flight of the Gemini program, with astronauts Virgil I. Grissom and John W. Young aboard. The crew performed a manually controlled reentry after three Earth orbits. The Gemini spacecraft was the first spacecraft that allowed astronauts the control over the craft that would be necessary for future landings on the Moon. Gemini III returned to Earth on March 23, 1965 after a mission duration of four hours, 52 minutes and 31 seconds.
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text390
Launched atop a Scout 36 rocket, the 60.8kg satellite studied the Earth's gravitational field and performed laser tracking experiments.
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text401
The 1,451.5kg satellite, launched by a Saturn 1 rocket, studied micrometeoroid behavior and found lower density than predicted. The craft fell to Earth Nov. 3, 1979.
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text404
The 59kg satellite, third of the Interplanetary Monitoring Platform, carried eight experiments to study the magnetic fields, cosmic rays and solar winds beyond the magnetosphere. A Delta 31 booster lifted the craft into orbit; however, the satellite reentered the atmosphere July 4, 1968.
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text405
3,537.6kg Gemini IV was launched by Titan II 4. This mission was the second manned flight of Gemini, with astronauts James McDivitt and Ed White. The crew made an attempt to rendezvous with the second stage of the launch vehicle Titan, testing the maneuverability of the Gemini craft; however, the attempt used up too much fuel and had to be abandoned. Astronaut Ed White performed a spacewalk wearing a spacesuit and tethered to the spacecraft by an 8m lifeline that provided him with oxygen and communication wires. White was able to maneuver outside the spacecraft using an oxygen-jet propulsion gun. This made it possible for him to place a 16mm camera at the aft of the capsule. White refused to reenter the capsule until specifically ordered to do so by the mission director, 21 minutes after he began his spacewalk. Gemini IV orbited the moon 64 times, before it splashed down on June 7, 1965 after a mission duration of 97 hours, 56 minutes and 12 seconds.
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text413
The 127kg weather satellite, funded by the US Weather Bureau, covered the entire 1965 hurricane and typhoon season. The satellite was lifted into orbit by a Delta 32 booster.
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text422
Launched by a Saturn 1 rocket, the 1,451.5kg Pegasus satellite was the final micrometeoroid detection experiment. The results were that flux of small particles was less than expected, large particles was more than expected and medium-sized particles was about as expected. The satellite reentered the atmosphere Aug. 4, 1969.
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text426
This mission was a flight test for the Atlas-Centaur launch vehicle as well as a test for guidance of direct-ascent. The vehicle did carry a payload of the Surveyor dynamic model. A Barycentric orbit was achieved.
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text430
Titan II 5 launched 3,175.2kg Gemini V on the third manned orbital flight of Gemini program, with astronauts L. Gordon Cooper and Charles Conrad jr. The crew attempted to perform a simulated rendezvous maneuvers experiment, but the fuel cells malfunctioned and the rendezvous was abandoned. The crew also performed communications experiments, and Gemini V's cameras recorded amazing detail of the Earth's surface. The astronauts themselves were able to detect the test launching of Minuteman missiles from the Earth's surface, proving that visibility from space was much higher than had been estimated. This was an encouraging finding for those who were interested in using space satellites for surveillance.
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text443
A failure of the Thor-Agena D booster caused a higher than planned orbit rendering only 19 of 20 experiments useful. The 507.1kg satellite investigated near-Earth space phenomena before it fell to Earth Sept. 17, 1981.
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text451
Launched by a Delta 34 booster, the GEOS-A satellite, at 174.6kg, was to provide further geodetic information about the Earth as part of the US Geodetic Satellite Program.
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text455
The 56.7kg satellite was lifted into orbit by a Scout 38 rocket. It monitored solar X-rays and ultraviolet emissions during the final portion of IQSY. This was a cooperative effort between the NASA and the NRL.
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text460
Both Alouette 2, 146.5kg, and Explorer 31, 98.9kg, were launched by a Thor-Agena B rocket. The satellite tandem provided information about unexplored regions of the ionosphere, its composition and temperature variations. This mission was a cooperative between the US and Canada.
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text462
This mission would have been the fourth manned mission of the Gemini project. The purpose of the mission was another attempt at rendezvous with a second vehicle. An Atlas rocket launched an Agena spacecraft, the intended rendezvous target. Telemetry with the Agena was lost 375 seconds after launch and the spacecraft failed to achieve orbit, causing the launch of Gemini VI to be postponed. Finally on December 15, Gemini VI, with astronauts Walter Schirra and Tom Stafford on board, was launched into the same orbit as Gemini VII, which had been orbiting for nearly two weeks. Gemini VI was able to maneuver within a few feet of the other spacecraft, accomplishing everything but docking. Gemini VI returned to Earth after a mission duration of 25 hours, 51 minutes and 24 seconds.
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text463
A cooperative effort between the US and France, the 71.7kg satellite was lifted into orbit by a Scout 39 rocket. Its mission was to study VLF wave propagation in the magnetosphere and ionosphere as well as measure electron densities.
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text466
Titan II launched 3,628.8kg Gemini VII on December 4, 1965, with astronauts Frank Borman and James Lovell aboard. This was the fourth manned mission in the Gemini series. The purpose of this mission was to test man's ability to stay in space for an extended period of time. The mission established a space-endurance record, with a mission duration of 330 hours, 35 minutes and one second. This mission also took part in a long-awaited rendezvous attempt. The Gemini VI launch had been canceled earlier in the month when the intended rendezvous spacecraft, Agena, failed to achieve orbit. Gemini VI was finally launched on December 15 into the same orbit as Gemini VII. Gemini VI maneuvered to within a few feet of Gemini VII, accomplishing everything but docking. Gemini VII returned to Earth on December 18, 1965.
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text467
Lifted into a heliocentric orbit by a Delta 35 booster, the 63.5kg satellite studied solar wind, interplanetary magnetic fields, solar physics and high-energy charged particles.
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text483
A Delta 36 booster lifted the 138.3kg satellite into a Sun-synchronous orbit permitting the weather satellite to study the same spot on the Earth at the same time every day. As well, this mission used for the first time the Advanced Vidicom Camera System which provided extremely high-quality information about weather systems and conditions.
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text491
The 131.5kg satellite completed the US' initial global weather satellite system. The craft, lifted into orbit by a Delta 37 rocket, provided local users with direct readouts of cloud cover images.
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text494
This was the target rendezvous vehicle for Gemini 8.
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text495
Gemini VIII was the sixth manned mission of the Gemini series. The Gemini spacecraft, with astronauts Neil A. Armstrong and David R. Scott, was launched to rendezvous and dock with an Agena spacecraft that had been separately launched. The docking was achieved successfully, but an attitude and maneuver thruster malfunctioned and caused the docked spacecraft to tumble end over end. The astronauts were forced to separate the vehicles, and lost a lot of fuel in the process. The mission was terminated early after a duration of ten hours, 41 minutes and 26 seconds. Gemini VIII splashed down (the first Pacific Ocean landing) on March 17, 1966.
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text506
This mission was a flight test of the Atlas-Centaur launch vehicle. A Surveyor mock-up was carried as payload aboard the craft. The second Centaur engine failed to fire placing it into a low Earth orbit which finally resulted in the vehicles reentry May 5, 1966.
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text507
An Atlas-Agena D rocket propelled the 1,769kg satellite into orbit where it was to study UV, X-ray and gamma ray regions. However, the satellite's primary battery failed leaving the craft inoperable.
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text516
The 413.7kg satellite provided global weather imaging on a 24 hour basis for weather research. The craft was lifted into orbit by a Thor-Agena D booster.
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text526
The seventh manned Gemini mission, scheduled for May 17, 1966, had to be postponed when the rendezvous target vehicle failed to achieve orbit. On June 3, Gemini IX was finally launched with astronauts Thomas P. Stafford and Eugene A. Cernan on board. This mission was to attempt three rendezvous and docking procedures; however, the target vehicle's shroud failed to separate, and the crew could only achieve near approaches. Eugene Cernan tested a personal jet system designed to improve spacewalking techniques. He spent more than two hours maneuvering in space and working on equipment outside the spacecraft, and was so exhausted that he was nearly unable to get back inside the spacecraft. Gemini IX splashed down on June 6, 1966 after a mission duration of 72 hours, 20 minutes and 50 seconds.
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text523
The Target rendezvous vehicle for Gemini 9.
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text520
The 224.5 Atmosphere Explorer, lifted into orbit by a Delta 38, studied the temperature, composition, pressure and density of the upper atmosphere. The craft reentered the atmosphere Feb. 22, 1985.
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text521
Launched towards the Moon by and Atlas-Centaur, the 995.2 Surveyor 1 soft-landed on the lunar surface at the Ocean of Storms, June 2, 1966. The probe performed a variety of tests including transmission of lunar imagery back to Earth. The landing pads of the craft only penetrated the lunar surface 2.5cm allaying any fears that the Moon would not support a more massive landing vehicle.
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text525
The 514.8kg satellite, launched by an Atlas-Agena B, was able to maintain the first 3-axis stabilization in a highly elliptical orbit where it studied geophysical and solar phenomena in the Earth's atmosphere.
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text528
A Scout 46 launched the USAF's radiation research satellite, at a 173kg mass.
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text533
The 30.5m diameter, 56.7kg sphere was lifted into orbit by a Thor-Agena D rocket. The satellite's mission, along with a network of ground stations, was to determine the locations of the continents, land masses and other geographic points using a triangulation system.
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text535
Lifted aloft by a Delta 39 booster, the 93.4 satellite, part of the Interplanetary Monitoring Platform system, was to study the Earth's magnetosphere and magnetic tail from a lunar distance. However, the craft was not able to achieve an anchored orbit between the Earth and Moon. All useful data was gathered while in Earth orbit.
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text536
This mission was a vehicle flight test to evaluate the Saturn-4B stage vent and restart ability. The assembly fell back to Earth July 5, 1966.
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textj1
Delta 44 launched this 87.1kg Comsat commercial communication satellite. Intelsat I F-2 reached its destination on February 4, 1967.
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textj2
Delta 45 launched this 131.5kg satellite, which replaced ESSA II in the TOS system and provided daily coverage of local weather systems to APT receivers. A shutter malfunction prevented one camera from operating.
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textj3
Atlas-Agena D launched the 385.8kg Lunar Orbiter 3. This mission took photographs of lunar landing sites from lunar orbit and provided photography of 600,000 square miles of the lunar front and 250,000 square miles of the lunar back. It also provided information on the moon's gravitational field and the lunar environment.
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textj4
Delta 46 launched 284.4kg OSO III. The mission included nine experiments using X-ray, visible, and UV radiation measurements to study the structure, dynamics and chemical composition of the outer atmosphere of the sun.
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textj5
This 87.1kg Comsat commercial communication satellite was launched by Delta 47.The launch completed the Intelsat II system.
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textj6
Atlas-Agena D launched this 324.3kg satellite. This mission was designed to test the gravity gradient control system and carried eight scientific experiments, microwave communications and meteorological cameras. The second stage failed to restart and resulted in an elliptical orbit; as a consequence, limited data was gathered.
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textj7
Atlas-Centaur launched 1,035.6kg Surveyor III. Surveyor III's Vernier engines failed to cut off as scheduled, causing the spacecraft to bounce twice before settling safely on the lunar surface. A camera recorded the surface sampler pressing, digging and depositing surface samples. This mission provided over 6,300 photographs, including shots of the Earth during a lunar eclipse.
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textj8
Delta 48 launched 147.4kg ESSA V. This satellite replaced ESSA III in the TOS System. It provided daily global coverage of weather systems.
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textj9
Scout 52 launched this 129.3kg satellite. Controlled by an Italian crew, this satellite launch was a cooperative effort between NASA and Italy. It represents the first satellite launch attempted from a mobile sea-based platform in the Indian Ocean. The mission provided continuous measurements of equatorial air density.
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textj11
Atlas-Agena launched the 385.6kg Lunar Orbiter IV. The satellite photographed 99% of the Moon's front side and some areas of the back side from lunar orbit.
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textj12
A cooperative mission between the NASA and the UK., Ariel III was the first UK-built satellite to extend atmospheric and ionospheric investigations. The 102.5kg satellite was launched by Scout 53
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textj13
Launched by Delta 49, 73.9 kg Explorer 34 was the fifth flight in the Interplanetary Monitoring Platform series. It achieved elliptical orbit and returned useful information for the study of Sun-Earth relationships.
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textj14
ESRO II-A, an 89.1kg satellite, was launched by Scout 55. This mission was equipped with seven experiments to study solar and cosmic radiation. Third stage vehicle failure prevented ESRO II-A from achieving orbit.
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textj15
Atlas-Agena D launched 244.9kg Mariner V. Mariner V flew by Venus and returned important data on Venus's atmosphere, radiation, and magnetic field environment. Mariner V is in heliocentric orbit.
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textj16
Atlas-Centaur launched 1,037.4kg Surveyor IV. The satellite impacted the moon on July 17, 1967. This lunar soft landing mission failed when the signal was lost two and a half minutes before touchdown.
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textj17
Delta 50 launched 104.4kg Explorer 35, an Interplanetary Monitoring Platform in lunar orbit used to study solar wind and interplanetary fields at lunar distances. Findings indicate that no shock front precedes the Moon and that the Moon has no magnetic field, radiation belts or ionosphere.
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textj18
Thor-Agena D launched 551.6kg OGO IV, which achieved near-polar orbit, three-axis stabilized. This mission studied the relationship between the Sun and Earth's environment.
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textj19
Delta 51 launched 425.4kg Biosatellite II. This satellite carried 13 biological experiments to be conducted in low Earth orbit. A storm and communications difficulties caused reentry 17 orbits early. Air recovery was successful.
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textj20
Atlas-Centaur launched the 1006.1kg Surveyor V, which achieved lunar soft landing on September 11, 1967. It successfully returned TV photos of the lunar surface and information about chemical characteristics of lunar soil to Earth.
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textj21
Intelsat II is a 87.1kg Comsat commercial communications satellite launched by Delta 52. It provides 24-hour transoceanic service.
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textj22
Delta 53 launched 276.7kg OSO-IV, which continued the OSO program to study the Sun's structure and its influence on the Earth. This mission obtained the first pictures of the sun in extreme ultraviolet.
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textj23
Scout 57 launched 116.6kg RAM C-1, which was a test to investigate communications problems experienced during reentry.
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textj24
Atlas-Agena D launched this 714kg satellite. ATS III explores useful applications of space technology to communications, meteorology, navigation and resource management.
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textj25
Atlas-Centaur launched 1008.3kg Surveyor VI, which achieved lunar soft landing on November 10, 1967. Surveyor VI transmitted pictures and soil analysis data to Earth. This mission also marked the first rocket-powered takeoff achieved from the lunar surface. Vernier engines restarted and lifted the vehicle ten feet from the lunar surface and moved it eight feet from the original landing site.
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textj26
Apollo 4, weighing 4,5506kg, was the first launch by Saturn V. This launch vehicle/spacecraft development flight carried an unmanned Apollo Command/Service Module. This mission was an important one for NASA because its success would pave the way for a manned lunar landing mission; its failure would jeopardize the possibility of any future Apollo flights. The mission was a success. All three stages of Saturn V burned correctly and the third stage carried the spacecraft successfully into orbit 115 miles above the Earth. From there, the controllers fired the third-stage rocket again by remote control, sending Apollo IV into orbit more than 10,000 miles out. Apollo IV's engines then increased the orbit further before the craft came back towards Earth. The unmanned command module splashed down in the Pacific Ocean after a mission duration of eight hours, 37 minutes and eight seconds.
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textj27
Delta 54 launched ESSA VI, a 129.7kg satellite which replaced ESSA II and ESSA IV in the TOS system. ESSA VI is used in central analysis of global weather systems.
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textj28
Delta 55 launched Pioneer VIII, a 65.8kg interplanetary probe in heliocentric orbit. It is the third in a series of probes to provide data on the solar wind, magnetic fields and cosmic rays. Delta 55 carried TETR-1, the first NASA piggyback payload.
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textj29
TETR-1, at 20kg, was the first NASA piggyback payload, carried into space by the interplanetary probe Pioneer VIII.
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textj30
Atlas-Centaur launched Surveyor VII, a 1,040.1kg spacecraft that achieved a lunar soft landing on January 9, 1968. This mission transmitted pictures of lunar terrain, portions of the spacecraft, experiments, stars, planets and crescent Earth. These photos are the first observation of artificial light from Earth.
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textj31
Delta 56 launched Explorer 36, a 212.3kg spacecraft that is part of the National Geodetic Program. It is designed to transmit precise information about the size and shape of the Earth and the strength and variation in the Earth's gravitational field.
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textj32
This first test flight of the 42,506kg Apollo 5 was made to verify the ascent and descent stages of the lunar module, propulsion systems, and restart operations for future flights. The design of the lunar module was particularly complicated because the module had to be light enough for the Saturn to launch, yet substantial enough to perform maneuvers and support astronauts. NASA dealt with this problem by making the module structurally weak by Earth's gravity standards, but strong enough for the gravity of the Moon. Because of this design the ascent and descent of the module couldn't be tested on Earth. The mission was a success, although the ascent engines, critical to the survival of future astronauts, were improved on later missions.
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textj33
Atlas-Agena D launched this 611kg satellite that provided measurements of energy characteristics in the Earth's radiation belts. This mission also uncovered the first evidence of electric fields in the bow shock.
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textj34
Scout 60 launched Explorer 37, an 89.8kg Solar Explorer that provided data on X-ray and ultraviolet emissions from the sun. This mission was a cooperative effort between NASA and National Research Laboratories
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textj35
This was a development flight of the 42,856kg Apollo 6, launched by Saturn V. Saturn V's second and third stage engines malfunctioned. The third stage would not restart to take Apollo out of Earth's orbit and towards the Moon. But spacecraft systems performed normally and relayed data back to NASA which indicated that the malfunctions were caused by a wiring error and a fuel leak, both minor problems, and the mission was counted as a success.
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textj36
Launched by Atlas-Centaur, 1006.1kg Lunar Orbiter V was the fifth and final mission to photograph potential landing sites from lunar orbit. The mission increased lunar photographic coverage to better than 99%.
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textj37
Scout 61 launched this 272kg turbulent heating experiment to obtain heat transfer measurements at 20,000fps.
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textj38
Scout 62 launched 571.5kg ESRO IIB. This satellite carried seven experiments to explore solar and cosmic radiation in the lower Van Allen belt. The mission was a cooperative effort between NASA and ESRO.
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textj39
Thor-Agena D launched this 571.5kg experimental meteorological satellite. Secor 10 (DOD) was a secondary payload. A booster malfunctioned and a destruct signal was sent by the Range Safety Officer. The satellite did not achieve orbit.
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textj40
Thor-Agena D launched the Nimbus B meteorological satellite with Secor 10 as a secondary payload. A booster malfunctioned and the satellite did not achieve orbit.
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textj41
Delta 57 launched 275.4kg Explorer 38, a Radio Astronomy Explorer used to monitor low-frequency radio signals that originate in our solar system and the Earth's magnetosphere and radiation belts.
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textj42
Scout 63 launched a dual payload, Explorer 39 at 9.3kg and Explorer 40 at 69.4kg to continue a study of the density and radiation characteristics of the Earth's upper atmosphere.
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textj43
Scout 63 launched a dual payload, Explorer 39 at 9.3kg and Explorer 40 at 69.4kg to continue a study of the density and radiation characteristics of the Earth's upper atmosphere.
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textj44
Atlas-Centaur launched this 390.1kg satellite. The purpose of ATS IV was to evaluate gravity-gradient stabilization, simultaneous transmission of voice, TV, telegraph and digital data. Reignition for second burn failed and the spacecraft remained in parking orbit attached to the launch vehicle.
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textj45
Delta 58 launched 147.4kg ESSA VII. This satellite replaced ESSA V as the main satellite for stored data in the TOS system.
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textj46
Scout 64 launched this 122kg satellite. RAM CII's mission was to measure concentrations of electrons and ions during reentry.
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textj47
Delta 59 launched this 286.7kg Comsat commercial communications satellite. Due to vehicle failure, Intelsat III F-1 did not achieve orbit.
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textj48
Scout 65 launched this 85.8kg craft which carried eight experiments designed to measure energies and pitch angles of particles as they impinge on the polar ionosphere during quiet periods and periods of magnetic storm. The mission was a cooperative effort between NASA and ESRO.
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textj49
The Apollo 7 command and service modules were launched into Earth orbit from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida for the first manned flight of the Apollo spacecraft. The mission was manned by astronauts Walt Schirra, Donn Eisels and Walter Cunningham. After separating from its powerful Saturn IB booster, the spacecraft was maneuvered to and from the discarded booster as a test of the service module's power. While in orbit, the astronauts completed many earth observations including one of a large storm cloud formation. Among the firsts for this mission were the drinking of a hot beverage, coffee, in space and the development of colds in the astronauts. This was a particular worry for ground controllers since the cold could have caused major damage to the inner ears of the astronauts during re-entry. However, all astronauts splashed down on earth without any ill effects. The spacecraft completed 163 orbits in 10.7 days.
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textj50
Delta 60 launched 66.7kg Pioneer IX with TETR 2 as a secondary payload. Pioneer IX was a deep space probe designed to collect data on the electromagnetic and plasma properties of interplanetary space. The duration of its mission was 260 hours, nine minutes and three seconds.
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textj51
Delta 60 launched Pioneer IX with TETR 2 as a secondary payload.
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textj52
Delta 61 launched 108.8kg HEOS A to gather data on solar cosmic ray particles and magnetic fields.
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textj53
Atlas-Centaur launched 2kg016.7kg OAO II. The purpose of this mission was to perform investigations of celestial objects in the ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
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textj54
Delta 62 launched this 136.1kg meteorological satellite.
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textj55
Delta 63 launched this 286.7kg Comsat satellite. Intelsat III was the first increment in Comsat's global communications system.
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textj56
NASA had committed itself to sending men to the moon, and unmanned and manned tests of all the major systems had been completed. Thus, NASA bravely decided to send men into orbit around the moon. Frank Borman, Jim Lovell and William Anders were chosen to man the Apollo VIII mission. All stages performed beautifully; Earth orbit was achieved and the crew restarted the third stage rocket to take them towards the Moon. Two of the astronauts suffered from space sickness, but the men were diagnosed (remotely, from Earth), and after taking medicines they felt well enough to carry out their tasks. On Christmas Eve morning the crew fired a rocket that would adjust their course and bring them within 70 miles of the lunar surface. On Christmas Day they transmitted television signals back to Earth. The crew of Apollo VIII were the first men to survey the lunar surface in detail, taking hundreds of photographs. This seven day mission included 10 revolutions of the moon. Apollo VIII splashed down on December 27, 1968 after a mission duration of 147 hours, zero minutes and 42 seconds.
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textj57
Delta 64 launched this 288.5kg satellite, a continuation of a program to gather data about the Sun's X-rays, gamma rays and radio emissions.
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textj58
Delta 65 launched this 235.9kg Canadian built satellite. ISIS-A carried ten experiments to study the ionosphere. The mission was a cooperative effort between NASA and Canada.
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textj59
Delta 66 launched this 286.7kg communications satellite. Intelsat III F-3 was the second increment in Comsat's operational commercial communication satellite system.
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textj60
Atlas-Centaur launched this spacecraft on a Mars flyby mission. Mariner VI obtained high resolution photography of the planet's surface. Its closest approach to Mars was 2,120 miles on July 31, 1969.
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textj61
Delta 67 launched this 157.4kg meteorological satellite, the ninth and last in the TOS series.
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textj62
Saturn V launched the Apollo 9 command module, service module and lunar module into orbit 119 miles above the Earth, with astronauts James A. McDivitt, David R. Scott, and Russell Schweickart aboard for the first flight of the lunar module. The first two stages of the launch vehicle were discarded; Saturn V's third stage continued, carrying the delicate lunar module. After a few hours of orbit the command and service modules separated from the third stage, drew the lunar module out of its sheath and docked, discarding the third stage in the process. On a platform outside the spacecraft, astronaut Russell Schweickart tested the self-contained spacesuit that would later be used to free-walk on the lunar surface. Five days into the mission Scott detached the lunar module, manned by McDivitt and Schweickart, from the command module. 50 miles away from the command module McDivitt and Schweickart tested the ascent and descent engines, which performed beautifully. After the astronauts returned safely to the command module, the lunar module was discarded and the astronauts returned to Earth after a mission duration of 241 hours zero minutes and 54 seconds.
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text63
Atlas-Centaur launched 411.8kg Mariner VII probe for a Mars flyby mission. The provided high resolution photographs of the Martian surface. Mariner VII's closest approach to the planet was 2,190 miles on August 5, 1969 before continuing its heliocentric orbit.
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text64
Thor-Agena launched 575.6kg Nimbus III and 20.4kg Secor 13 into Earth orbit. Nimbus III provided global day and night meteorological measurements. Secor contributed geodetic position determination measurements.
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textj65
Thor-Agena launched 20.4kg Secor 13 and 575.6kg Nimbus III into Earth orbit. Secor provided geodetic position determination measurements. Nimbus III provided global day and night meteorological measurements.
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textj66
Saturn V launched Apollo X into lunar orbit with astronauts Thomas P. Stafford, John W. Young, and Eugene A. Cernan aboard. The purpose of this mission was to test all aspects of a manned lunar landing except the landing itself. Stafford and Cernan tested the descent and ascent engines of the lunar landing module, hovering a mere nine miles over the Sea of Tranquillity, the intended landing place for the next Apollo mission. All systems performed perfectly and the astronauts splashed down safely on May 26, 1969 after a mission duration of 192 hours, three minutes and 23 seconds.
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textj67
Delta 68 launched this 143.8kg satellite, the third increment of Comsat's operational commercial communication satellite system.
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textj68
Thor-Agena launched this 631.8kg satellite. OGO VI was the last in the OGO series to obtain measurements of the energy characteristics of the Earth's radiation belts. The OGO series provided the first evidence of electric fields in the bow shock.
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textj69
Delta 69 launched this 78.7kg Interplanetary Monitoring Platform. Explorer 41 was seventh in a series to study the environment in and beyond Earth's magnetosphere.
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textj70
Delta 70 launched this 696.3kg satellite with a pigtail monkey on board to study the effects of weightlessness. The monkey's metabolic condition deteriorated rapidly, ending the mission after only nine days. The monkey died eight hours after the spacecraft was recovered, possibly from a massive heart attack caused by dehydration.
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textj71
After the successful Apollo X mission, NASA was ready to attempt the first lunar landing. Apollo XI was launched on a Saturn V rocket on July 16, 1969 carrying astronauts Neil A. Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Edwin A. (Buzz) Aldrin. The command module, service module and lunar module all achieved successful lunar orbit. The crew deployed a camera that transmitted the first color television broadcast ever from space. An additional rocket burn altered the elliptical orbit of the spacecraft to a nearly circular one and preparations for the landing began. Astronauts Armstrong and Aldrin, who would man the lunar landing module, ran a systems check before getting a few hours of sleep. On Apollo's thirteenth orbit of the Moon, the lunar module (the Eagle) separated from the command module (the Columbia) and Armstrong transmitted to Mission Control, "The Eagle has wings." Armstrong fired the descent engines to slow the craft for landing. All systems were operating properly when a problem arose four minutes before landing. The Eagle's instruments were transmitting so much data to Mission Control in Houston that the Mission Control computer couldn't process it fast enough. A warning light came on and the controllers decided it must be an instrumentation failure rather than a systems problem. In reality a malfunction in the navigation system had taken the Eagle away from the intended landing area into a dangerous boulder field. Armstrong took over the manual controls and landed the spacecraft successfully, reporting to the waiting world, "The Eagle has landed." After a quick meal on the Moon, the astronauts put on their spacesuits and Neil Armstrong took the first step on the lunar surface, uttering the now famous words, "One small step for man. One giant leap for mankind." Armstrong and Aldrin set up a television camera so all of their activities could be broadcast on Earth. After planting a United States flag, the astronauts collected moon rocks and did a mobility evaluation--that is, they experimented with walking, and jumping in low gravity. After a telephone call from President Richard Nixon, and after setting up various experiments, Armstrong and Aldrin fired the ascent engines of the lunar module and returned to the Columbia. Apollo XI splashed down on July 24, 1969 after a mission duration of 195 hours, 18 minutes and 35 seconds.
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textj72
Delta 71 launched this 146.1kg Comsat satellite. This satellite was the fourth increment in Comsat's operational commercial communication satellite system. Intelsat failed to achieve orbit when the third stage malfunctioned.
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textj73
Delta 72 launched this 173.7kg satellite to continue study of the Sun's X-rays, gamma rays and radio emissions. The mission also carried a PAC experiment designed to study stabilization of the spent Delta stage.
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textj74
Delta 72 launched OSO VI, a satellite to study the Sun's X-rays, gamma rays and radio transmissions, as well as the 117.9kg PAC, an experiment designed to study stabilization of the spent Delta stage.
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textj75
Atlas-Centaur launched this 432.7kg satellite, equipped with 13 experiments. The purpose of the mission was to evaluate gravity-gradient stabilization for geosynchronous satellites. An anomaly after apogee motor firing resulted in counterclockwise spin and the gravity-gradient booms could not be deployed. Nine of the thirteen experiments provided useful information.
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textj76
Delta 73 launched 67.1kg Pioneer E, a deep space probe designed to study magnetic disturbances in interplanetary space. The launch vehicle malfunctioned and Pioneer E was destroyed by the Range Safety Officer eight minutes and three seconds into powered flight.
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textj77
Scout 66 launched this 85.8kg satellite, the fourth European-designed and manufactured satellite to study ionospheric and auroral phenomena over the northern polar region.
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textj78
Scout 67 launched this 72.1 satellite in cooperation with Germany. GRS-A studied the inner Van Allen belt and auroral zones of the Northern Hemisphere.
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textj79
The Apollo XII mission began rather inauspiciously when it was struck by lightening just seconds after liftoff--not once, but twice. But the spacecraft continued its voyage carrying astronauts Charles Conrad jr., Richard F. Gordon and Alan F. Bean safely to the Moon. The Apollo XII lunar module landed in the Ocean of Storms on November 19, 1969. Conrad and Bean gathered core samples and lunar materials, deployed a television camera and scientific instruments that would radio data back to Earth. The mission also photographed and retrieved parts from the Surveyor III spacecraft. This mission's duration was 244 hours, 36 minutes and 24 seconds. Apollo XII returned to Earth on November 24, 1969.
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textj80
Delta 74 launched the 242.7kg communications satellite Skynet A for the United Kingdom.
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textj81
Delta 75 launched this 155.1kg Comsat commercial communication satellite.
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textj82
Delta 76 launched 306.2kg ITOS I, a second generation meteorological satellite to provide day and night cloud cover observations in direct and stored modes. The Australian satellite Oscar 5, at 9.1kg, was carried as a piggyback payload. Oscar was used by amateur radio operators throughout the world.
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textj83
Delta 76 launched the second generation meteorological satellite ITOS I with the Australian, 9.1kg Oscar 5 as a piggyback payload. Oscar was used by amateur radio operators throughout the world.
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textj84 Thor-Agena launched this 503.5kg craft which was designed as an ion engine test. The mission fell short of its duration objective by less than a month.
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textj85
Delta 77 launched this 242.7kg communications satellite for NATO.
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textj86
Thor-Agena launched this 619.6 stabilized Earth-oriented platform designed to test systems for collecting meteorological and geological information. It carried TOPO I as a piggyback payload. TOPO's purpose was to perform triangulation exercises.
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textj87
Thor-Agena launched Nimbus D with TOPO I as a piggyback payload. TOPO's purpose was to perform triangulation exercises.
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textj88
Saturn V launched 51,655kg Apollo with astronauts James A. Lovell jr., John L. Swigert jr., and Fred W. Haise jr. aboard, for what would have been the third manned lunar landing. The spacecraft achieved lunar orbit with no problems, and a rocket was fired to direct the craft towards the intended landing site, Fra Mauro hills. A warning light indicated that the pressure in on of the service module's hydrogen tanks was low. The hydrogen and oxygen tanks are the basis of the spacecraft's life support systems and fuel cell. Because it is difficult to get accurate pressure readings of hydrogen and oxygen inside the service module, the gas containers were equipped with heating wires to give the gases a "cryogenic stir," an attempt to get a better reading. Mission Control instructed the astronauts to stir both hydrogen tanks and both oxygen tanks, one of which was showing an impossible reading of more than full. A limitation in the warning light system at Mission Control made it impossible for the controllers to notice that one of the oxygen tanks was showing a dramatic increase in pressure. What had happened was that one of the cryogenic stirrers had become stuck in the on position during routine testing before launch, causing the oxygen tank to heat up and depleting all the oxygen. The results were nearly disastrous for the astronauts, whose vessel was now losing power quickly. The mission had to be aborted. The astronauts used the lunar module as a survival vehicle, a "lifeboat" in space, then switched to the command module for the risky reentry. Thankfully, the astronauts splashed down safely on April 17, 1970 after a mission duration of 142 hours, 54 minutes and 41 seconds.
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textj89
Delta 78 launched 290.3kg Intelsat III F-7 as part of Comsat's continuing operational commercial communication satellite system.
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textj90
Delta 79 launched this 290.3kg satellite as part of Comsat's continuing operational commercial communication satellite system. There was a malfunction during apogee motor firing and the satellite failed to achieve the desired orbit.
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textj91
Delta 80 launched this 242.7kg communications satellite for the United Kingdom. The apogee motor failed and telemetry was terminated.
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textj92
Scout 69 launched this 134kg craft into suborbital flight as a test of radio blackout.
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textj93
Scout 70 launched this 132.9kg craft, the Orbiting Frog Otolith. The mission was an experiment in which frogs were used to explore the effects of weightlessness on the inner ear, which controls balance. OFO I was launched with RMS, Radiation Meteoroid Spacecraft, which provided data on radiation belts.
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textj94
Scout 70 launched 21kg RMS (Radiation Meteoroid Spacecraft) with OFO I. RMS provided information on radiation belts.
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textj95
Atlas-Centaur launched 2,122.8kg OAO B, intended to perform stellar observations in the ultraviolet region. Centaur's nose fairing failed to separate and OAO B did not achieve orbit.
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textj96
Delta 81 launched 306.2kg ITOS A, a satellite designed to augment NOAA's world-wide weather observation capabilities.
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textj97
Scout 71 launched this 142kg Small Astronomy Satellite designed to record X-ray sources within and outside the Milky Way. Explorer 42 was the first X-ray satellite.
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textj98
Atlas-Centaur launched this 1,387.1kg, fourth generation Comsat satellite to provide increased capacity for Comsat's existing global commercial communications network.
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textj99
Saturn V launched Apollo XIV carrying astronauts Alan B. Shepard jr., Stuart A. Roosa, and Edgar D. Mitchell for the first attempt at a lunar landing since the nearly disastrous Apollo XIII mission. The third manned lunar landing touched down in the Fra Mauro area on February 5, 1971. Shepard and Mitchell explored Fra Mauro in the lunar module Antares, while Roosa conducted photographic and visual observations from the command module Kitty Hawk. Apollo XIV returned to Earth after a mission duration of 216 hours, one minute and 58 seconds.
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textj100
Delta 82 launched this 242.7kg satellite. It was the second communications satellite for NATO.
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textj101
Delta 83 launched this 288kg second generation Interplanetary Monitoring Platform to gather data on solar-lunar relationships.
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textj102
Delta 84 launched this 264kg craft designed to explore electron production and loss, as well as large scale transport of ionization in the ionosphere. This mission was a cooperative effort between NASA and Canada.
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textj103
Scout 72 launched this 163.3kg craft. This mission was a cooperative effort between NASA and Italy to study atmosphere drag, density, neutral composition and temperature.
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textj104
Atlas-Centaur launched this 997.9kg spacecraft. The Mariner Mars '71 Orbiter mission was intended to map the surface of Mars. Centaur's stage malfunctioned after launch and Mariner H never achieved orbit.
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textj105
Atlas-Centaur launched this 997.9kg orbiter. This was the second Mariner Mars '71 Orbiter mission. Unlike Mariner H before it, Mariner I achieved orbit around Mars on November 13, 1971 and transmitted 6,876 photographs of the planet's surface.
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textj106
Scout 73 launched this 62.1kg craft into suborbital flight as a test to determine the structure and composition of the atmosphere from a probe entering at high speed.
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textj107
Scout 74 launched 115kg Explorer 44. This spacecraft was designed to monitor solar radiation in the form of X-rays and ultraviolet emissions. This mission was a cooperative effort between NASA and NRL.
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textj108
Saturn V launched Apollo XV, the fourth manned lunar landing mission. Astronauts David R. Scott, Alfred M. Worden, and James B. Irwin landed at Hadley Rille on the lunar surface on July 30, 1971. While Worden orbited in the command module Endeavour, Scott and Irwin explored the Hadley Rille and the Apennine Mountains in the lunar module Falcon. This mission made the first use of the lunar roving vehicle, and the crew returned 171 pounds of rocks and surface samples. The P&F Subsatellite was spring-launched from the service module on this mission. Apollo XV returned to Earth on August 7, 1971 after a mission duration of 295 hours, 11 minutes and 53 seconds.
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The 36.3kg P&F Subsatellite was spring-launched from Apollo XV's service module in lunar orbit.
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textj110
Scout 75 launched this 85kg satellite in a cooperative effort between NASA and France. In addition to the satellite, this mission employed instrumental balloons launched from Argentina to acquire data on wind, temperature and pressure.
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textj111
Scout 76 launched this craft into suborbital flight as part of the Barium Ion Cloud Project to explore the Earth's magnetic field. The project was a cooperative effort between NASA and Germany.
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textj112
Delta 85 launched this 635kg spacecraft to observe physical processes on the Sun and how they affect the Earth and its space environment. TETR 4 was a secondary payload.
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textj113
Delta 85 launched 20.4kg TETR 4 as a secondary payload with OSO H, a spacecraft designed to observe physical processes on the Sun.
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textj114
Delta 86 launched this 31.7kg satellite. ITOS B was intended to increase NOAA's world-wide weather observation capabilities. The second stage failed.
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textj115
Scout 77 launched this 50kg satellite designed to explore magnetic storms and the acceleration of charged particles within the inner magnetosphere.
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textj116
Scout 78 launched this 102.4kg craft, a cooperative effort between NASA and the United Kingdom to study interactions between charged particle streams and plasma in the atmosphere.
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textj117
Atlas-Centaur launched this 1387.1kg, fourth generation Comsat global commercial communications satellite as a part of Comsat's growing network.
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textj118
Atlas-Centaur launched this 1387.1kg fourth generation satellite as part of Comsat's growing global commercial communications system.
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textj119
Delta 87 launched this 117kg craft. Various European organizations provided HEOS A-2 with experiments designed to research particles and micrometeorites in space.
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textj120
Atlas-Centaur launched this 235kg spacecraft on the first Jupiter flyby mission. After transmitting data about Jupiter to Earth, Pioneer 10 left the solar system.
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textj121
Delta 88 launched this 470.8 Western European satellite designed to gather data about high-energy emissions from stellar and galactic sources.
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textj122
Saturn V launched Apollo XVI with astronauts John W. Young, Ken Mattingly, and Charles M. Duke on board. This was the fifth manned lunar landing mission. Apollo XVI landed at Descartes on April 20, 1972. Duke and Young spent over 71 hours exploring the lunar surface. The crew deployed a TV camera and experiments, and drove the lunar roving vehicle up Stone Mountain. Because of concerns over an engine, Apollo XVI returned to Earth one day early on April 27, 1972, after a mission duration of 265 hours, 51 minutes and five seconds.
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textj123
Apollo XVI carried this 36.3kg satellite to the moon on the fifth lunar landing mission. From there, the Apollo crew deployed the satellite into lunar orbit. The P&F satellite impacted the moon on May 29, 1972.
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textj124
Atlas-Centaur launched Intelsat IV F-5, a fourth generation communications satellite, to augment the capacity of Comsat's global commercial communications network.
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textj125
Delta 89 launched this 941kg craft. The purpose of ERTS-A was to use remote sensing technology to explore the Earth's surface on a global and continuous basis.
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textj126
Scout 79 launched this 206.4kg satellite to record penetration rates and the velocity of meteors.
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textj127
Atlas-Centaur launched this 2,200kg craft used to explore the absorption of elements in interstellar gas, and to study the emission of ultraviolet radiation from young, hot stars.
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textj128
Scout 80 launched this 94kg satellite to assist US Navy navigation.
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textj129
Delta 90 launched this 375.9kg Interplanetary Monitoring Platform. Explorer 47 was an automated physics lab used to investigate interplanetary radiation, solar winds and energetic particles.
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textj130
Delta 91 launched the 34.5kg ITOS D. This satellite was designed to augment NOAA's global weather observation capacity. An amateur radio satellite, Oscar, was carried as a piggyback payload.
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textj131
Delta 91 launched ITOS D, an NOAA weather satellite, with 15.9kg Oscar as a piggyback payload. Oscar was a radio satellite used by amateur operators all.
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textj132
Delta 92 launched this 544.3kg communications satellite for Canada, the first in its series.
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textj133
Scout 82 launched 186kg Explorer 48, a small astronomy satellite. Explorer 48 was equipped with a gamma ray telescope housed in a dome to investigate gamma rays. The satellite was launched from San Marco by an Italian crew.
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textj134
Scout 82 launched this 114kg craft. ESRO IV was equipped with five experiments to study auroral and solar particles, the magnetosphere and the ionosphere.
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textj135
Saturn V launched Apollo XVII, the sixth and final manned lunar landing mission in the Apollo series. The mission was manned by astronauts Eugene A. Cernan, Ronald E. Evans, and Harrison H. Schmitt. Evans piloted the command module America while Cernan and Schmitt landed at Taurus-Littrow in the lunar module Challenger on December 11, 1972. The crew deployed a TV camera and performed extravehicular activities with the lunar roving vehicle. Apollo XVII returned to Earth on December 19, 1972 after a mission duration of 301 hours, 51 minutes and 59 seconds.
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textj136
Delta 93 launched 716.8kg Nimbus E, a stabilized, Earth-oriented platform devoted to the testing of meteorological and geological data gathering systems.
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textj137
Scout 83 launched this 716.8 craft to investigate the Earth's upper atmosphere and ionosphere. The mission was a cooperative effort between NASA and Germany.
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textj138
Atlas-Centaur launched this 259kg spacecraft to explore interplanetary space beyond Mars' orbit, the asteroid belt and the space environment near Jupiter.
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textj139
Delta 94 launched this 544.3kg satellite as the second domestic communications satellite for Canada.
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textj140
Saturn V launched the 71,500kg Skylab Workshop, the first US space station. This initial mission was unmanned. The station was damaged during launch, but was repaired during later manned missions.
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textj141
Saturn IB launched the first manned mission to the Skylab Workshop. Charles (Pete) Conrad jr., Joseph P. Kerwin, and Paul J. Weltz deployed a thermal blanket to protect the hull of the space station and to control internal temperatures. They also freed the solar wing that had been jammed by debris. The crew returned to Earth after a mission duration of 672 hours, 49 minutes and 49 seconds.
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textj142
Delta 95 launched 328kg Explorer 49 into a selenocentric orbit. This radio astronomy explorer was designed to measure low frequency radio emissions from the Sun, Earth and Jupiter, as well as from galactic and extragalactic sources.
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textj143
Delta 96 launched this 333.8kg NOAA weather observation satellite. The launch vehicle's second stage malfunctioned and ITOS E failed to achieve orbit.
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textj144
Saturn IB launched the second manned mission to the Skylab space station. Alan L. Bean, Owen K. Garriott and Jack R. Lousma performed systems and operational tests of the lab's equipment, conducted experiments and deployed the lab's thermal shield. The crew returned to Earth after a mission duration of 1,416 hours, 11 minutes and nine seconds.
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textj145
Atlas-Centaur launched 1,387.1kg Intelsat IV F-7, a fourth generation satellite to augment Comsat's worldwide commercial communications system.
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textj146
Delta 97 launched 397.2kg Explorer 50, the last in the Explorer series of Interplanetary Monitoring Platforms used to explore the Earth's radiation environment.
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textj147
Scout 84 launched this 95kg satellite used in US Navy navigation.
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textj148
Atlas-Centaur launched this 504kg spacecraft on a flyby to Venus and Mercury, the first dual-planet flyby mission. On the flight to Venus Mariner 10 transmitted photographs of the Earth and the Moon. Mariner encountered Venus at 5,800 kilometers on February 5, 1973. The spacecraft had three encounters with Mercury: March 29, 1974 at 704 kilometers; September 21, 1974 at 48,069 kilometers; and March 16, 1975 at 327 kilometers. Mariner 10 conducted engineering tests before the attitude control gas was exhausted and the transmitter was shut off on March 24, 1975. Mariner 10 is in heliocentric orbit.
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textj149
Delta 98 launched this 345kg NOAA satellite used to expand global weather observation capacity.
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textj150
Saturn IB launched the third manned excursion to the Skylab space station. Gerald P. Carr, Edward G. Gibson, and William R. Pogue conducted inflight experiments and gathered medical data on themselves. They also performed four extravehicular activities. The Skylab 4 crew returned to Earth on February 8, 1974, after a mission duration of 2,016 hours, one minute and 16 seconds.
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textj151
Delta 99 launched 663kg Explorer 51. This mission included 14 instruments to measure and study energy transfer, atomic and molecular processes and chemical reactions in the Earth's atmosphere.
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text152
Delta 100 launched this 435.5kg communications satellite for the United Kingdom. A short circuit caused vehicle failure.
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textj153
This mission was a development test of the Titan IIIE/Centaur (TC-1). The launch vehicle carried a simulated Viking spacecraft and Sphinx. The liquid oxygen boost pump malfunctioned during Centaur starts and the destruct command was sent 748 seconds after liftoff.
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textj154
Scout 85 launched 170kg San Marco C-2 to record variations in equatorial atmosphere density, composition and temperatures. This mission was a cooperative effort between NASA and Italy.
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textj155
Scout 86 launched this 91.9kg, three-axis stabilized spacecraft to test the design and manufacture of this kind of stabilized platform for use on small spacecraft.
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textj156
Delta 101 launched this 571.5kg domestic communications satellite for Western Union.
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textj157
Delta 102 launched this 628kg satellite in a cooperative effort between NASA and NOAA. SMS A was a geostationary environmental satellite designed to perform Earth imaging in visible and IR spectrums. This was the first weather observation satellite to function in a fixed geosynchronous orbit over the equator.
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textj158
Titan III C launched this 1403kg Applications Technology Satellite. ATS F was designed to provide good quality television signals to inexpensive ground receivers. The satellite also carried more than 20 technology and science experiments.
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textj159
Scout 87 launched this 26.6kg "Hawkeye" spacecraft designed to explore the interaction between the solar wind and the Earth's magnetic field.
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textj160
Scout 88 launched this 125.7kg German-built satellite designed to explore the condition and behavior of the Earth's upper atmosphere and the ionosphere.
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textj161
Scout 89 launched the 129.8kg ANS A, a cooperative mission between NASA and the Netherlands. This spacecraft studied the sky in ultraviolet and X-ray from above Earth's atmosphere.
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textj162
Delta 103 launched this 571.5kg Western Union domestic communications satellite.
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textj163
Scout 90 launched this 130.3kg spacecraft in a cooperative effort between NASA and the United Kingdom. UK-5 was designed to observe the spectrum, polarization and pulsar features of non-solar X-ray sources.
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textj164
This 345kg satellite was launched by Delta 104. ITOS-G increased NOAA's global weather observation capabilities. Intasat, a 20.4kg ionosphere observation satellite, and Oscar, a 28.kg communications satellite, shared this launch.
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textj165
Delta 104 launched this 20.4kg satellite in a cooperative effort between NASA and Spain. Intasat was designed to carry out global observations of total electron counts in the ionosphere. Intasat shared launch with ITOS-G, an NOAA weather observation satellite, and Oscar, a communications satellite used by amateur radio operators.
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textj166
Delta 104 launched this 28.6kg communications satellite to increase communication capacity for amateur radio operators around the world. Oscar shared launch with ITOS-G, an NOAA weather observation satellite, and Intasat, an ionosphere observation satellite.
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textj167
Atlas-Centaur launched this 1387.1kg, fourth generation communications satellite to augment Comsat's world-wide communications network.
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textj168
This 435kg communications satellite was launched by Delta 105 for the United Kingdom.
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textj169
This 370kg spacecraft was launched by Titan IIIE in a cooperative effort between NASA and West Germany. The purpose of Helios A was to observe the Sun from an orbit near the center of the solar system.
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textj170
Delta 106 launched this 402kg satellite. Symphonie A was a joint French-German communications satellite to provide service for Europe, Africa, the Middle East, and North and South America.
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textj171
Delta 107 launched Landsat 2, the second Earth Resources Technology Satellite. This satellite was designed to locate and map the Earth's resources from space and to demonstrate the utility of this approach to resource management.
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textj172
Delta 108 launched this 628kg NOAA satellite. Working with SMS-A, this satellite provides cloud-cover pictures every thirty minutes.
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textj173
Atlas-Centaur launched this 1,387.1kg, fourth generation Comsat satellite to increase Comsat's global commercial communications network. Atlas-Centaur malfunctioned and the satellite failed to achieve orbit.
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textj174
340kg GEOS C was launched by Delta 109. This satellite was designed to measure the topography of the ocean and observe the sea state.
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textj175
Explorer 53, weighing 196.7kg, was launched by Scout 91. This astronomy satellite studied X-ray sources in and beyond the Milky Way galaxy.
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textj176
Delta 110 launched 544.3kg Telesat, the third domestic communications satellite for Canada.
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textj177
Atlas-Centaur launched this 1,387.1kg, fourth generation satellite. This satellite augmented Comsat's growing global commercial communications network.
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textj178
Delta 111 launched 827kg Nimbus F, a stabilized, Earth-oriented platform designed to test systems for collecting both meteorological and geological data.
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textj179
Delta 112 launched 1088.4kg OSO I. The purpose of OSO I was to study the influence of the Sun's physical processes on the Earth and its space environment.
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textj180
Saturn IB launched the 14,856kg Apollo spacecraft with Thomas P. Stafford, Vance D. Brand and Donald K. Slayton on board. The crew performed rendezvous and docking procedures successfully and on July 17, 1975 the Apollo spacecraft and Soyuz-19 joined for the first meeting in space of American astronauts and Russian cosmonauts. Cosmonauts Aleksy Leonov and Valeriy Kubasov worked with the Apollo crew to perform joint experiments and scientific investigations. All received congratulations from Premier Leonid Brezhnev and President Gerald Ford. The ships remained linked for 44 hours before the Apollo spacecraft returned to Earth, after a mission duration of 217 hours, 28 minutes and 23 seconds.
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Leonov and Kubasov treated the men to gifts and food. All were congratulated by Premier Leonid Brezhnev and President Gerald Ford. Both craft remained docked for two days until Apollo undocked and drew 50m away to eclipse the Sun. The csomonauts then photographed the Sun's corona. Afterwards, Apollo attempted to redock but with difficulty. Finally, though they succeeded. Soyuz-19 returned to Earth without incident the morning of the 21st, leaving Apollo to carry out a variety of experiments before reentering July 24.
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textj181
Delta 113 launched this 277.5kg cosmic ray satellite to study extraterrestrial gamma radiation.
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textj182
Titan IIIE and Centaur 88 launched the 2324.7kg Viking A Orbiter and 571.5kg Viking A Lander. The purpose of this mission was a systematic exploration of Mars. This was the first attempt by the United States to soft land a spacecraft on another planet. The Viking Lander successfully landed on Mars on July 20, 1976. This mission also yielded the first analysis of surface materials from another planet.
Titan IIIE and Centaur 89 launched the 2,324.7kg Viking B Orbiter and 571.5kg Viking B Lander in the second Viking Mars exploratory mission. The lander soft landed on Mars on September 3, 1976. The mission returned excellent scientific data.
The Viking spacecraft traveled millions of miles across space to photograph and test the physical attributes of Mars, Phobos and Deimos. Viking 1 was launched on September 9, 1975, and Viking 2 was launched on August 20, 1975. The probes arrived at Mars on June 19, 1976 and August 7, 1976 respectively. The search was on for life on Mars.
Viking 1 orbited Mars with two TV cameras and returned 26,000 photos. After the cameras initially showed the planned landing site to be unacceptable, 16 days of orbital maneuvering and survey work were undertaken to evaluate alternate sites. Viking 1's lander parachuted successfully to the surface on July 20, 1976 with its weather station, seismometer and soil analyzer. Parachutes and rocket braking softened the probe's landings, and foot pad sensors shut the engines down on reaching the planet's surface. The chosen landing area was Chryse Planitia, while Viking Lander 2 set down a few weeks later at Utopia Planitia to begin a series of coordinated surface studies. The Viking's orbiters continued to make observations from their positions above the planet.
The air on Mars was found to be comprised of 95 per cent carbon dioxide, 2.7 per cent nitrogen, plus traces of argon, oxygen and water vapor. A mechanical arm was controlled by each Lander's onboard computer, scooping up samples and transferring them to an automatic biological laboratory inside the Lander. Pictures from the landing site did not show any signs of plant life, and a gas chromatograph for determining soil composition was unable to detect any complex organic molecules. Other test results puzzled scientists as raw soil with simulated sunlight and water released some carbon dioxide, but even more oxygen. Without light, or if sterilized first, there was little change. With the absence of organic compounds in the soil (within the range of instrument sensitivity) it was concluded that perhaps the observed reactions were chemical due to a strong oxidizer in the soil, such as hydrogen peroxide. None of the sets of results were able to be duplicated in a laboratory, leaving the possibility open that some primitive, but exotic life form may exist on Mars.
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textj184
Delta 114 launched this 402kg communications satellite, the second joint French-German satellite to serve the communication needs of Europe, Africa, the Middle East, and North and South America.
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textj187
Atlas-Centaur launched this 1,515kg Comsat satellite. Intelsat IVA F-1 had double the capacity of previous commercial communication Intelsats.
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textj188
Delta 115 launched this 675kg atmospheric Explorer to study energy transfer and chemical processes that control the Earth's atmosphere.
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textj189
Scout 92 launched this 161.9kg satellite, the second in an improved series of navigation satellites for the United States Navy.
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textj190
Delta 116 launched this 628kg NOAA geosynchronous weather satellite, the first operational satellite in this system of satellites.
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textj191
719.gkg Explorer 55 was launched by Delta 117 to continue study of energy transfer and chemical processes that control the Earth's atmosphere.
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textj192
Scout 93 launched this 35.3kg explorer. The Dual Air Density Explorer was intended to measure the global density of the Earth's upper atmosphere and the lower exosphere. A malfunction in the third stage burn resulted in the loss of vehicle control. The explorer did not achieve orbit.
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textj193
Delta 118 launched this 867.7kg satellite, the first domestic communications satellite for RCA.
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textj194
Titan IIIE and Centaur 93 launched this 374.7kg spacecraft in a cooperative effort between NASA and Germany. Helios B carried 11 instruments to explore the Sun.
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textj195
Delta 119 launched CTS. CTS was an experimental high-powered communications satellite designed to provide communications in remote areas of the world.
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textj196
Atlas-Centaur launched this 1515kg satellite, the second in an improved series of satellites with double the capacity of previous Intelsats in Comsats world-wide commercial communications system.
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textj197
Delta 120 launched this 655.4kg Comsat Maritime Satellite to allow quick, high-quality communications between home offices and ships at sea.
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textj198
Delta 121 launched 867.7kg RCA B, the second RCA domestic communications satellite.
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textj199
Delta 122 launched this third-generation communications satellite for NATO.
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textj200
411kg LAGEOS was launched by Delta 123. This solid, spherical, passive satellite was launched to provide a reference point in laser ranging experiments.
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textj201
Atlas-Centaur launched 1,490.1kg Comstar 1A. This satellite was the first domestic communications satellite for Comsat.
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textj202
72.6kg Air Force P76-5 was launched by Scout 94. The purpose of this craft was to evaluate the propagation effects of disturbed plasmas on radar and communications systems.
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textj203
Delta 124 launched this 655.4kg satellite. Marisat B was the second Comsat Maritime Satellite launched to allow quick, high-quality communications between home offices and ships at sea.
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textj204
Delta 124 launched 102.5kg Gravity Probe A into suborbital flight to test Einstein's Theory of Relativity.
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textj205
573.8kg Palapa A was launched by Delta 125 as a communications satellite for Indonesia.
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textj206
Atlas-Centaur launched 1490.1kg Comstar B as the second domestic communications satellite for Comsat.
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textj207
Delta 126 launched this 345kg second generation NOAA satellite for global weather observation.
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textj208
Scout 96 launched this 166kg, improved transit navigation satellite for the United States Navy.
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textj209
655.4kg Marisat C was launched by Delta 127. This was the third in a series of Comsat Maritime Satellites to allow quick, high-quality communications between home offices and ships at sea.
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textj210
Delta 128 launched this 670kg satellite, a third-generation communications satellite for NATO.
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textj211
Delta 128 launched this 573.8kg communications satellite, the second for Indonesia.
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textj212
Delta 130 launched 571.5kg GEOS/ESA. This ESA satellite carried seven experiments intended to study Earth's magnetosphere. A malfunction in the second stage/third stage spinup put GEOS in an unusable orbit.
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textj213
1515kg Intelsat IVA F-4 was launched by Delta 130. This Comsat satellite had double the capacity of previous Intelsats, and increased the capacity of Comsat's global commercial communications network.
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textj214
Delta 131 launched this 635kg satellite. Equipped with a visible/infrared spin-scan radiometer, GOES/NOAA provided day and night, world-wide weather pictures for NOAA.
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textj215
Delta 132 launched this 669.5kg operational weather satellite. GMS was Japan's contribution to the Global Atmospheric Research Program.
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textj216
Atlas-Centaur launched this 2,551.9kg High Energy Astronomy Observatory to observe and map X-rays and gamma rays.
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textj217
TITAN III E and Centaur 106 launched this 2,086.5kg spacecraft on a solar system escape trajectory that will take the craft into interstellar space. The purpose of this mission was to explore the planetary systems of Jupiter and Saturn, and the interplanetary space between Earth and Saturn. The Jupiter flyby occurred on July 9, 1979; Saturn flyby on August 25, 1981; Uranus flyby on January 24, 1986; and Neptune flyby on August 25, 1989.
Titan III E and Centaur launched 2,086.5kg Voyager 1. Voyager 1's mission was to explore the Jupiter and Saturn planetary systems and interplanetary space between Earth and Saturn. The Jupiter flyby encounter occurred on March 5, 1979. The Saturn flyby, the last of Voyager 1's planetary encounters, occurred on November 12, 1980. Voyager 1 left Saturn at a high angle to the ecliptic plane in order to observe Saturn's cloud-covered moon, Titan, before continuing in a heliocentric orbit.
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 are identical American interplanetary probes. Voyager 2 was launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida on August 20, 1977, while Voyager 1 blasted off September 5, 1977. Voyager 1 was on a more direct flight path and quickly overtook the other spacecraft. The two Voyagers were each launched on a Titan-Centaur rocket, headed out on their grand tour of the Solar System and beyond to the realms of interstellar space.
At 10:29 a.m. under clear Florida skies the launch of Voyager 2 went exactly as planned. The gyroscopes and electronic brain in Voyager 2 were active during launch, monitoring the sequence of events so as to take control upon separation from the Titan-Centaur. Voyager's brain became disoriented in the process and switched to its backup sensors, presuming its "senses" to be malfunctioning. Fortunately the robotic brain remained disconnected from Voyager's powerful thrusters and did not damage the launch in any way. The Centaur's attitude-control system electronically corrected the stricken spacecraft's brain just prior to separation as tense engineers watched from the Florida control center.
After an hour and eleven minutes had passed from lift-off time, Voyager 2 fired its own special solid rocket for forty-five seconds, providing the final push necessary to send it on its way to Jupiter. Ninety seconds after the key rocket burn ended, a ten-foot arm with a television camera and other remote-sensing equipment was unlatched and deployed on schedule. Then came another problem as Voyager once again sensed an emergency. This time the brain decided to switch on thrusters and actuated valves to control the minute bursts of gas used to stabilize its orientation. The robotic "alter-ego" (Voyager's executive program) then challenged portions of its own brain in a frantic attempt to correct the perceived failure in orientation. In the next step Voyager shut down most communications with Earth as it went through procedures JPL engineers had installed to cope with the most extreme emergency for a robot in deep space - spacecraft attitude disorientation. It took seventy-nine minutes for the spacecraft to reestablish a known orientation, finally radioing data confirming its stability. Engineers were able to identify computer problems and worked feverishly to correct the parameter settings in Voyager 1.
Voyager 1 lifted off on September 5 as planned, launched by the last Titan-Centaur in the world. A slight error in the mixture ratio of the two liquid fuels in the Titan left twelve hundred pounds of them unburned, causing an early burnout and separation. The Centaur's brain recognized the anomaly and extended its burn just enough to compensate, putting Voyager 1 and its propulsion module exactly on course, with a mere 3.4 seconds of propulsion left.
The Voyager craft were not without a variety of problems enroute to Jupiter. Engineers had to respond to further difficulties with Voyager 2's brain and Voyager 1's sticking scan platform. By December of 1978, when Voyager 1 rehearsed its Jupiter encounter sequence, all was well and the scan platform executed an intricate series of motions with all instruments functioning correctly. On January 4, 1979, Voyager 1 began filming the atmosphere of Jupiter, sending back outstanding, detailed photographic images of the giant planet. A faint and previously unseen ring was detected around Jupiter, as Voyager continued to follow instructions from Earth despite instrument damage sustained by the bombardment of charged particles in Jupiter's radiation belts. Io, Jupiter's innermost moon, was photographed next, and discovered to have huge sulfurous volcanoes spewing debris a hundred miles above its rugged surface. By contrast, Europa, the next moon to Io, has been determined to be the smoothest object in the Solar System... a finely cracked, icy surface, possibly coating a gigantic ocean. Voyager 1 explored Jupiter's third moon, Ganymede, finding a fossilized surface, and then Callisto, the heavily-cratered fourth moon.
Voyager 1 passed within 177,720 miles (286,000 km) of Jupiter, while Voyager 2 passed within 400,000 miles (643,000 km) of the great planet. New discoveries were made that included auroras and lightning in Jupiter's atmosphere. Four previously unknown moons were also noticed after a thorough analysis of the images returned by Voyager 1. This brought the total number of moons orbiting Jupiter to 16.
The Jupiter fly-bys propelled each spacecraft towards their next destination, Saturn. Voyager 1 and 2 flew by the ringed planet in November 1980 and August 1981. Saturn's nine known moons were beautifully imaged by the Voyagers as well as thirteen smaller satellites that were discovered as a result of the fly-bys. The Saturn encounter enabled Voyager 2 to be boosted into a trajectory for a fly-by of Uranus in 1986. Images of Uranus indicated 10 new moons, making 15 in total and an additional two rings, bringing the total to 11. The larger moons of Uranus, an almost featureless, cloud-covered world itself, indicated a violent past, particularly Miranda which was unlike anything ever seen before. Its strange geological forms may have been caused by repeated fragmentations before solidifying in its present state.
Voyager 2 made its closest approach to Uranus on January 24, 1986, and was then on its way to an encounter with Neptune, destined for August of 1989. It skimmed over Neptune's north pole and passed by within 25,000 miles of the giant moon Triton. Following its fly-bys of Saturn in November of 1980, Voyager 1 sped through the orbits of Uranus, Pluto (then inside Neptune's orbit) and Neptune between 1984 and 1990. Voyager 2 closed in on Pluto's orbit in January 1990, but the planet was not planned as an encounter due to its great distance from the spacecraft.
Voyager 1 is headed up out of the Solar System at a 35 degree angle, while Voyager 2 is descending away at a 48 degree angle. Both spacecraft are expected to be detectable until about the year 2016 when they will be at a distance of more than 100 AU.
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Delta 133 launched this 398kg Italian satellite. The purpose of SIRIO was to investigate the adverse effects of weather on the propagation characteristics of radio waves transmitted at super high frequencies.
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Delta 134 launched this 865kg ESA experimental communications satellite. The vehicle failed to achieve orbit when it exploded 54 seconds after liftoff.
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textj221
1,515kg Intelsat IVA F-5 was launched by Atlas-Centaur. This was another of a series of improved Comsat satellites with double the capacity of previous Intelsats intended to augment Comsat's global commercial communications network. The launch vehicle failed and the satellite did not achieve orbit.
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textj222
Delta 135 launched this dual payload, ISEE A and ISEE B. The purpose of these International Sun Earth Explorers was to investigate interactions between the interplanetary medium and Earth's immediate environment. The mission was a cooperative effort between NASA and ESA.
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textj223
Scout 97 launched this 93.9kg improved transit navigation satellite for the United States Navy.
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textj224
Delta 136 launched this 695.3kg ESA meteorological satellite. Meteosat was Europe's contribution to the Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP).
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textj225
Delta 137 launched this 677kg experimental communications satellite for Japan.
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textj226
Atlas-Centaur launched this 1,515kg satellite to increase the telecommunications capacity of Intelsat's world-wide network.
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textj227
Delta 138 launched this 698.5 International Ultraviolet Explorer to gather high resolution data of planets and stars in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum.
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textj228
This 1,863.3kg satellite was launched by Atlas-Centaur. The purpose of Fltsatcom-A was to provide communications capability for the United States Air Force and the United States Navy for fleet relay and fleet broadcast.
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textj229
Delta 139 launched this 900kg satellite, the third Earth Resources Technology Satellite used to examine the Earth's natural resources. Lansat-C measured water, agricultural fields and mineral deposits. The mission also carried the Lewis Research Center Plasma Interaction Experiment (PIX-I) and AMSAT Oscar Amateur Radio communications relay satellite.
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textj230
Delta 139 launched Landsat-C, an Earth Resources Technology Satellite, along with 27.3kg Oscar-8, an AMSAT Oscar Radio communications relay satellite. The launch also carried PIX-I, the Lewis Research Center Plasma Interaction Experiment.
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textj231
Delta 139 launched 34kg PIX-I, a Lewis Research Center Plasma Interaction Experiment. The launch included Landsat-C, an Earth Resources Technology Satellite, and Oscar-8, an AMSAT amateur radio communications relay satellite.
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textj232
Atlas-Centaur launched this 1,515kg satellite to increase the telecommunications capabilities of Intelsat's world-wide communications system.
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textj233
Delta 140 launched this 665kg broadcasting satellite for Japan. The purpose of this satellite was to conduct television broadcasting experiments.
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textj234
134.3kg HCMM/AEM-A was launched by Scout 98. This Heat Capacity Mapping Mission was designed to explore the feasibility of measuring variations in the Earth's temperatures from space.
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textj235
Delta 141 launched this 865kg Orbital Test Satellite to do communications experiments for ESA.
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textj236
Atlas-Centaur launched 582kg Pioneer Venus-A, one of two Pioneer missions to Venus in 1978. The spacecraft orbited Venus to do remote sensing and direct measuring of the planet and its surrounding environment.
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textj237
Delta 142 launched this 635kg geostationary satellite for NOAA. This satellite is part of NOAA's global network of environmental satellites that provide Earth imaging, monitor the space environment and relay meteorological data.
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textj238
Atlas-F launched 2,300kg Seasat-A. This satellite was meant to demonstrate techniques for global monitoring of oceanographic features and phenomena. Seasat-A relayed data for 106 days before a short circuit drained power from the batteries and contact was lost.
textj239
Atlas-Centaur launched this 1,516kg satellite, the third domestic communications satellite for Comsat.
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textj240
Delta 143 launched this 575kg satellite. GEOS-B was positioned on magnetic field lines in order to study the magnetosphere. Data collected was correlated with ground station, balloon and sounding rocket measurements.
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textj241
Atlas-Centaur launched this multiprobe Pioneer flight to Venus. The purpose of the probes was to study the atmosphere of the planet. All four of Pioneer's probes transmitted data. The large probe, north probe and the night probes all went dead upon impact with the planet on December 9, 1978. The day probe continued to send data for 68 minutes after impact.
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textj242
479kg ISEE-C was launched by Delta 144. This explorer observed characteristics of solar phenomena one hour before ISEE-A and B. The purpose of these missions was to examine how the Sun controls Earth's near space environment. In 1985 this spacecraft was renamed ICE and its orbit was altered to approach the comet Giacobini-Zinner on September 11, 1985. This mission was a cooperative effort between NASA and ESA.
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textj243
This spacecraft was originally named ISEE-C. Launched by Delta 144, ISEE-C was an explorer used to study the interaction of solar phenomena with Earth's near space environment. After completing its solar mission, the spacecraft was renamed ICE and its orbit was changed to encounter the comet Giacobini-Zinner.
The mission was a cooperative effort between NASA and ESA.
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textj244
Atlas-F launched this 1,405kg, third-generation polar orbiting environmental spacecraft to improve acquisition of meteorological and environmental data. The spacecraft was operated by NOAA.
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textj245
Delta 145 launched 987kg Nimbus-G. This craft was equipped with sensors and technology for experiments in pollution monitoring, oceanography and meteorology. The data was transmitted to and processed by ESA. The launch vehicle also carried Project Cameo (Chemically Active Material Ejected in Orbit), which released lithium over Northern Scandinavia and barium over Northern Alaska.
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textj246
Delta 145 launched Nimbus-G and Project Cameo (Chemically Active Material Ejected in Orbit). After separating from Nimbus-G, Delta released lithium over Northern Scandinavia and barium over Northern Alaska.
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textj247
The 3152kg High Energy Astonomical Observatory was launched by Atlas-Centaur. The second observatory of the series, HEAO-B was equipped with an X-ray telescope to investigate the high energy universe, pulsars, neutron stars, black holes, quasars, radio galaxies and supernovas.
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textj248
Delta 146 launched 706kg NATO IIIC, a third-generation communications satellite for NATO.
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textj249
Delta 147 launched this 887.2kg domestic communications satellite, the fourth for Canada.
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textj250
Delta 148 launched 658.6kg SCATHA (Spacecraft Charging at High Altitudes). This craft was equipped with 12 experiments to explore electrical static discharges and their effects on satellites.
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textj251
Scout 99 launched this 127kg Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment Applications Explorer Mission in order to map vertical profiles of ozone, aerosol, nitrogen dioxide and Rayleight molecular extinction around the world.
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textj252
1876.1kg Fltsatcom B was launched by Atlas-Centaur to provide communications capability for the United States Air Force and the United States Navy for fleet relay and fleet broadcast.
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textj253
Scout 100 launched 154.5kg UK-6 to measure ultra-heavy cosmic ray particles and study low-energy cosmic X-rays.
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textj254
Atlas-F launched this 1405kg NOAA satellite to provide coverage of the Earth and high-accuracy global meteorological data.
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textj255
Delta 149 launched this 571.5kg domestic communications satellite for Western Union.
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textj256
Atlas-Centaur launched this 2,898.5kg High Energy Astronomy Observatory. HEAO 3 was equipped with two cosmic ray experiments and one gamma ray spectrometer for obtaining data on cosmic rays observed across far space.
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textj257
Scout 101 launched this 183kg Magnetic Field Satellite Applications Explorer Mission in order to map Earth's magnetic field.
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textj258
Delta 150 launched this 895.4kg domestic communications satellite, the third for RCA. Soon after apogee motor firing contact with the satellite was lost.
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textj259
1,864.7kg Fltsatcom C was launched by Atlas-Centaur to provide the United States Air Force and the United States Navy with fleet relay and fleet broadcast communications capability.
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textj260
2,315kg Solar Maximum Mission was launched by Delta 151. This was the first solar satellite using a coordinated set of instruments to study specific solar phenomena. SMM-A obtained detailed information about solar flares, active regions of the sun, and sunspots. It also measured the total output of solar radiation.
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textj261
Atlas 19F launched this 1,405kg satellite to provide continuous coverage of the Earth along with TIROS N, and to provide high-accuracy global meteorological information. The launch vehicle failed to put the satellite into its intended orbit.
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textj262
Delta 152 launched this NOAA geostationary environment as part of a network of satellites to perform Earth imaging, monitor the space environment and to relay meteorological information.
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textj263
Atlas-Centaur launched this 1,863.8kg satellite to provide the United States Air Force and the United States Navy with fleet relay and fleet broadcast communications capability.
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textj264
This 1,057kg Satellite Business Systems was launched by Delta 153. The purpose of this satellite was to provide businesses, governments agencies and other organizations with fully switched private communication networks.
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textj265
Atlas-Centaur launched this 1,928.2kg advanced spacecraft to increase the telecommunications capacity of Intelsat's world-wide network.
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textj266
Atlas-Centaur launched this 1,484kg communications satellite, the fourth in a series of domestic satellites for Comsat.
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textj267
This was the first orbital test flight of the STS, manned by John W. Young and Robert L. Crippen. The purpose of the mission was to test the combined performance of the STS and the Space Shuttle Columbia. The spacecraft landed at DFRF April 14, 1981 after a mission duration of 54 hours, 20 minutes and 53 seconds.
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textj268
Scout 102 launched this 166.9kg improved Transit satellite for the United States Navy's navigation system.
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textj269
Delta 154 launched this 837kg NOAA Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite as part of NOAA's system to provide high resolution visual and infrared imaging of large areas of the Earth.
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textj270
Atlas-Centaur launched this 1,928.2kg advanced series spacecraft in order to increase the telecommunications capacity of Intelsat's existing world-wide network.
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textj271
1405kg NOAA-C was launched by Atlas 87F. The purpose of this satellite was to provide continuous coverage of the Earth and to obtain highly accurate global meteorological data.
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textj272
Delta 155 launched 424kg DE A and 420kg DE B, a dual spacecraft designed to explore the Earth's electromagnetic fields.
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textj273
Atlas-Centaur launched this 1,863.8kg satellite to provide the United States Air Force and the United States Navy with communications capability for fleet relay and fleet broadcast.
-end-
textj274
Delta 156 launched this 1,057kg Satellite Business System to provide businesses, government agencies and other organizations with fully switched, private communication networks.
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textj275
Delta 157 launched this 437kg Solar Mesosphere Explorer. The explorer is an atmospheric research satellite designed to study reactions between sunlight, the Earth's ozone and other chemicals in the atmosphere. The mission carried UoSat-Oscar 9 Amateur Radio Satellite as a secondary payload.
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textj276
Delta 157 launched SME, an atmospheric research satellite, with 52kg UoSAT 1-Oscar 9 as a secondary payload. Oscar 9 is a satellite used by amateur radio operators.
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textj277
This was the second orbital test flight of the Space Transportation System, manned by Joe E. Engle and Richard H. Truly. The purpose of the mission was to test the combined performance of the STS and the Space Shuttle vehicle (Columbia). An OSTA-1 payload was able to conduct research in the attached mode. The spacecraft landed at DFRF on November 14, 1981 after a mission duration of 54 hours, 13 minutes and 12 seconds.
-end-
textj278
Delta 158 launched this 1,081.8kg domestic communications satellite, the fourth for RCA.
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textj279
Atlas-Centaur launched this 1,928.2kg spacecraft as part of an advanced series to increase telecommunications capacity of Intelsat's world-wide communications system.
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textj280
Delta 159 launched this 1,081.8 domestic communications satellite for RCA.
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textj281
Delta 160 launched this 1,072kg second-generation domestic communication satellite for Western Union.
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textj282
Atlas-Centaur launched this 1,928.2kg advanced series spacecraft to increase telecommunications capacity for Intelsat's existing world-wide communications network.
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textj283
This was the third orbital test flight of the Space Transportation System, manned by Jack R. Lousma and C. Gordon Fullerton to test the combined performance of the STS and the Space Shuttle vehicle (Columbia). OSS-1 experiments were conducted from the cargo bay. The spacecraft landed at White Sands on March 30, 1982 after a mission duration of 192 hours, four hours and 45 seconds.
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textj284
Delta 161 launched this 1,152.1kg satellite, a multipurpose telecommunications and meteorology spacecraft for India.
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textj285
Delta 162 launched this 1,105kg domestic communications satellite for Western Union.
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textj286
This mission was the fourth and last orbital test flight of the Space Transportation System, manned by Thomas K. (Ken) Mattingly II and Henry W. Hartsfield. The purpose of the mission was to verify the combined performance of the Space Shuttle vehicle. It carried the first Getaway Special canister for Utah State University as well as payload DOD 82-1. The spacecraft landed at DFRF on July 4, 1982 after a mission duration of 169 hours, nine minutes and 31 seconds.
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textj287
1,942kg Landsat D was launched by Delta 163. This Earth Resources Technology Satellite was equipped with a multispectral scanner and thematic mapper to provide continuing Earth remote sensing information.
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textj288
Delta 164 launched this 1,238.3kg commercial communications satellite for Canada.
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textj289
1,928.2kg Intelsat V-E F-5 was launched by Atlas-Centaur as part of an advanced series of spacecraft to increase the telecommunications capacity for Intelsat's growing global network. This mission also carried an MCS (Maritime Communications Services) package for INMARSAT.
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textj290
Delta 165 launched this 1,116.3kg domestic communications satellite for RCA.
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textj291
This was the first operational flight of the Space Transportation System (Shuttle Columbia), manned by Vance Brand, Robert Overmeyer, Joseph Allen and William Lenoir. Two satellites, SBS-C and Telesat-C were deployed. The spacecraft landed at DFRF on November 16, 1982 after a mission duration of 122 hour, 14 minutes and 26 seconds.
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textj292
3,344.8kg SBS-C (Satellite Business Systems) was a communications satellite deployed on the first operational flight of the Space Transportation System (Shuttle Columbia).
-end-
textj293
4,443.3kg Telesat-E was a commercial communications satellite for Canada deployed on the first operational flight of the Space Transportation System (Shuttle Columbia).
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textj294
Delta 166 launched this 1,075.9kg Infrared Astronomical Satellite. IRAS made the first all-sky survey of objects that emit infrared radiation, and provided infrared sky maps. The mission was a cooperative effort between NASA and the Netherlands.
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textj295
Delta 166 launched IRAS (Infrared Astronomical Satellite) then activated PIX II, a Lewis Research Center Plasma Interaction Experiment designed to explore interactions between high voltage systems and the space environment.
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textj296
Atlas 73E launched 1,712kg NOAA-8, and advanced Tiros spacecraft designed to provide continuous coverage of the Earth and high-accuracy global meteorological information.
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textj297
This was the second operational flight of the Space Transportation System (Shuttle Challenger), manned by Paul Weitz, Karol Bobko, Donald Peterson, and Story Musgrave. The mission deployed TDRS, a Tracking and Data Relay Satellite, and performed extravehicular activities.
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textj298
TDRS-A was a 1,7014kg Tracking and Data Relay Satellite deployed on the second operational mission of the STS (Shuttle Challenger). The purpose of TDRS-A was to improve tracking and data acquisition services to spacecraft in low Earth orbit.
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textj299
Delta 167 launched this 1,116.3kg domestic communications satellite for RCA.
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textj300
Delta 168 launched this 838kg Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite to improve NOAA's system to provide high resolution visual and infrared imaging over large areas of Earth.
-end-
textj301
1,928.2kg Intelsat V-F F-6 was launched by Atlas-Centaur. This spacecraft provided increased telecommunications capacity for Intelsat's existing world-wide network.
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textj302
Delta 169 launched this 500kg X-ray satellite designed to provide continuous observations of X-ray sources.
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textj303
This was the third operational flight of the Space Transportation System (Shuttle Challenger), crewed by Robert L. Crippen, Frederick H. Hauck, John M. Fabian, Sally K Ride (the first female astronaut) and Norman E. Thagard. The mission deployed two communications satellites, Telesat-F and Palapa-B-1, and carried out experiments including the launch and recovery of SPAS 01. The spacecraft landed at DFRF on June 24, 1983 after a mission duration of 146 hours, 23 minutes and 59 seconds.
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textj304
Telesat-F, a 4,443.4kg commercial communications satellite for Canada, was deployed on the third operational flight of the Space Transportation System (Shuttle Challenger).
-end-
textj305
Palapas-B-1, a 4,521.5kg communications satellite for Indonesia, was deployed on the third operational flight of the Space Transportation System (Shuttle Challenger).
-end-
textj306
As an experiment on the third operational mission of the Space Transportation System (Shuttle Challenger), SPAS-01 was launched and recovered.
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textj307
Scout 103 launched this 112.6kg Air Force HILAT satellite. The satellite was designed to study the propagation effects of disturbed plasmas on radar and communication systems.
-end-
textj308
Delta 170 launched this 519kg communications satellite for Hughes Communications, Inc.
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textj309
Delta 171 launched this 635kg communications satellite for AT&T.
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textj310
This was the fourth operational flight of the Space Transportation System (Shuttle Challenger), manned by Richard H.Truly, Daniel C. Brandenstein, Dale A.Gardner, Guion S. Bluford (the first black astronaut), and William E. Thornton. This was the first night launch and landing. The mission deployed INSAT for India, and performed experiments. The spacecraft landed at DFRF on September 5, 1983.
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textj311
3,391kg INSAT-B was deployed on the fourth operational flight of the Space Transportation System (Shuttle Challenger). INSAT-B was a communications satellite for India.
-end-
textj312
Delta 172 launched this 1,121.3kg domestic communications satellite for RCA.
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textj313
Delta 173 launched this 379kg communications satellite for Hughes Communications, Inc.
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textj314
This was the fifth operational flight of the Space Transportation System (Shuttle Columbia), manned by John W. Young, Brewster W. Shaw jr., Owen K. Garriott, Robert A. R. Parker, Byron K. Lichtenberg, and Ult Merbold. The shuttle carried Spacelab-1, a multi-discipline science payload, in its cargo bay. This mission was a cooperative effort between NASA and ESA. Columbia landed at DFRF on December 8, 1983 after a mission duration of 247 hours, 47 minutes and 24 seconds.
-end-
textj316
This was the fourth flight for the shuttle Challenger, manned by Vance D. Brand, Robert L. Gibson, Bruce McCandless, Ronald E. McNair and Robert L. Stewert. The mission deployed Westar and Palapa B-2 satellites. Both PAMs failed; the satellites were retrieved on a later mission. The crew performed rendezvous tests with IRT, using a deflated target, and evaluated both the Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU) and the Manipulator Foot Restraint (MFR). Challenger landed at KSC on February 11, 1984 after a mission duration of 191 hours, 15 minutes and 55 seconds.
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textj317
The shuttle Challenger deployed this 3,309kg communications satellite for Western Union and a 234kg satellite for Indonesia on its fourth mission. Both PAMs failed. The satellites were retrieved and returned on November 16, 1984 by Discovery.
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textj318
IRT was a 234kg craft used by Challenger on its fourth mission to perform rendezvous tests.
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textj319
The shuttle Challenger deployed this 3,419kg communications satellite for Indonesia and a 234kg satellite for Western Union on its fourth mission. Both PAMs failed. The satellites were retrieved and returned on November 16, 1984 by Discovery.
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textj320
Delta 174 launched this 1,947kg Earth resources technology satellite designed to provide Earth remote sensing data. Its instruments included a multispectral scanner and thematic mapper. Landsat shared launch with UoSAT, an amateur radio satellite sponsored by AMSAT.
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textj321
Delta launched this 52kg amateur radio satellite sponsored by AMSAT. UoSAT shared launch with Landsat 5, an Earth resources technology satellite.
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textj322
This was the fifth Challenger flight with Robert L. Crippen, Frances R. Scobee, Terry J. Hart, George D. Nelson and James D. Van Hoften aboard. The mission deployed LDEF (Long Duration Exposures Facility). SMM was retrieved and repaired in the cargo bay, and redeployed on April 12. Challenger landed at DFRF on April 13, 1984.
-end-
textj323
This 9,670kg Long Duration Exposures Facility was deployed on the fifth Challenger flight, and retrieved on January 20, 1990 by the shuttle Columbia.
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textj324
Atlas-Centaur launched this 1,928.2kg spacecraft. Intelsat V-G F-9 was part of an advanced series designed to increase telecommunications capacity of Intelsat's world-wide communications network. The launch also carried an MCS package for INMARSAT. The launch vehicle failed to place Intelsat into usable orbit.
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textj325
Delta 175 launched three magnetospheric particle tracer explorers in an international cooperative effort to study the transfer of mass from the solar wind to the magnetosphere. The 242kg Charge Composition Explorer (CCE) was provided by the United States. The Federal Republic of Germany provided the Ion Release Module (IRM), and the United Kingdom provided the United Kingdom Subsatellite (UKS).
-end-
textj326
605kg IRM was one of three magnetospheric particle tracer explorers launched by Delta 175 in an international cooperative effort to study the transfer of mass from the solar wind to the magnetosphere. IRM (Ion Release Module) was the contribution of the Federal Republic of Germany. The United States provided CCE (Charge Composition Explorer), and the United Kingdom provided UKS (United Kingdom Subsatellite).
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textj327
77kg UKS was one of three magnetospheric particle tracer explorers launched by Delta 175 in an international cooperative effort to study the transfer of mass from the solar wind to the magnetosphere. UKS (United Kingdom Subsatellite) was the contribution of the United Kingdom. The Federal Republic of Germany contributed IRM (Ion Release Module), and the United States provided CCE (Charge Composition Explorer).
-end-
textj328
This mission was the first flight for the shuttle Discovery, manned by Henry W. Hartsfield, Michael L. Coats, Richard M. Mullane, Steven Hawley, Judith A. Resnik, and Charles D. Walker. The mission deployed SBS-4, Syncom IV-2 (also called Leasat) and Telstar 3-C. The crew performed experiments including OAST-1 solar array structural testing. Discovery landed at EAFB on September 5, 1984 after a mission duration of 144 hours, 56 minutes and four seconds.
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textj329
3,344kg SBS-4 (Satellite Business System) was deployed on the first Discovery flight. The SBS series provides fully switched, private communications networks to businesses, government agencies and other large organizations.
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textj330
6,889kg Syncom IV-2, also called Leasat, was a communications satellite deployed on the first Discovery flight.
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textj331
3,402kg Telstar 3-C was a communications satellite deployed on the first Discovery flight for AT&T.
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textj332
Delta 176 launched this 519kg communications satellite for Hughes Communications, Inc.
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textj333
This was the sixth flight for the shuttle Challenger, manned by Robert L. Crippen, Jon A. McBride, Kathryn D. Sullivan, Sally K. Ride, David C. Leestma, Paul D. Scully-Power, and Marc Garneau (Canada). The crew deployed ERBS (Earth Radiation Budget Satellite) to obtain global measurements of the Sun's radiation reflected and absorbed by Earth. They also carried out experiments using OSTA-3 and other instruments. Challenger landed at KSC on October 13, 1984 after a mission duration of 197 hours, 23 minutes and 33 seconds.
-end-
textj334
2,449kg ERBS (Earth Radiation Budget Satellite) was deployed on the sixth flight of the shuttle Challenger. The purpose of this satellite was to obtain global measurements of the Sun's radiation reflected and absorbed by the Earth.
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textj335
Scout 104 launched this 173.7kg Transit Navigation Satellite for the United States Navy.
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textj336
This was the second flight for the shuttle Discovery, manned by Frederick H. Hauck, David M. Walker, Joseph P. Allen, Anna L. Fisher, and Dale A. Gardner. The crew deployed Telesat, a communications satellite for Canada, and Syncom IV-1, a communications satellite for Hughes Communications, Inc. The mission retrieved and returned Palapa B-2 and Westar 6 (launched by Challenger on STS 41B). Discovery landed at KSC on November 16, 1984 after a mission duration of 191 hours, 44 minutes and 56 seconds.
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textj337
The shuttle Discovery deployed this 6,889kg communications satellite for Canada on its second flight.
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textj338
This 6,889kg communications satellite for Hughes Communications, Inc., was deployed by the shuttle Discovery on its second flight.
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textj339
Delta 177 launched this 761kg satellite, the fourth in a series of communications satellites for NATO.
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textj340
Atlas 39E launched this 1,712kg advanced TIROS-N spacecraft to provide coverage of the Earth and high-accuracy global meteorological data.
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textj341
This was the third flight for the space shuttle Discovery, manned by Thomas K. Mattingly, Loren J. Shriver, Ellison S. Onizuka, James F. Buchli, and Gary E. Payton. The crew deployed an unannounced payload for the Department of Defense. Discovery landed at KSC on January 27, 1984 after a mission duration of 73 hours, 33 minutes and 23 seconds.
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textj342
On its third flight, the space shuttle Discovery deployed this classified, unannounced payload for the Department of Defense.
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textj343
Atlas-Centaur launched this 1,996.7kg improved commercial communications satellite, the first in its series, for Intelsat.
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textj344
The fourth flight of the shuttle Discovery was manned by Karol K. Bobko, Donald F. Williams, M. Rhea Seddon, S. David Griggs, Jeffrey A. Hoffman, Charles D. Walker, and E.J. "Jake" Garn (a United States senator). The mission deployed Syncom IV-3 for Hughes, and Telesat-I for Canada. The Syncom Sequencer failed to start and was inoperable until repaired by the crew of STS 51-I (August 1985). Discovery landed at KSC on April 19, 1985 after a mission duration of 167 hours, 55 minutes and 23 seconds.
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textj345
Discovery deployed this 6,889kg communications satellite for Canada on its fourth flight.
-end-
textj346
Discovery deployed this 6,889kg Synchronous Communications Satellite built by Hughes and leased to the United States Navy. The Syncom Sequencer failed to start, and the satellite remained inoperable until August 1985, when the crew of STS 51-I restarted it.
-end-
textj347
The sixth Challenger flight was manned by Robert F. Overmeyer, Frederick D. Gregory, Don Lind, Norman E. Thagard, William E. Thornton, Lodewijk Vanderberg and Taylor Wang. This mission carried Spacelab-3, a cooperative effort between NASA and ESA. Spacelab-3 was designed to conduct applications, science and technology experiments. The mission also deployed Northern Utah Satellite (NUSAT) and a Global Low Orbiting Message Relay Satellite for the Department of Defense. GLOMR deployment failed and was returned. Challenger landed at DFRF on May 6, 1985 after a mission duration of 168 hours, eight minutes and 46 seconds.
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textj348
The fifth flight of the space shuttle Discovery was crewed by Daniel C. Brandenstein, John O. Creighton, Shannon W. Lucid, John M. Fabian, Steven R. Nagel, Patrick Baudry (of France) and Prince Sultan Salman Al-Saud (of Saudi Arabia). The mission deployed Morelos, a communications satellite for Mexico, Arabsat, a communications satellite for Saudi Arabian Communications Organization, and Telstar, a Hughes communications satellite owned by AT&T. The mission also deployed and retrieved Spartan 1. Discovery landed at EAFB on June 24, 1985 after a mission duration of 169 hours, 38 minutes and 52 seconds.
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textj349
The space shuttle Discovery deployed this 3,443kg communications satellite for Mexico on its fifth flight.
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textj350
The space shuttle Discovery deployed this 3,499kg communications satellite for Saudi Arabian Communications Organization on its fifth flight.
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textj351
This 3,437kg communications satellite was deployed for AT&T on the fifth flight of the space shuttle Discovery.
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textj352
Spartan 1, a Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for Astronomy, was deployed and retrieved (June 24, 1985) on the fifth flight of the shuttle Discovery.
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textj353
Atlas-Centaur launched 1,996.7kg Intelsat VA F-11, the second in a series of improved Intelsat commercial communications satellites.
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textj354
The seventh Challenger mission was manned by Charles G. Fullerton, Roy D. Bridges jr., Karl G. Heinze, Anthony W. England, Story Musgrave, Loren W. Acton and John-David F. Bartow. The crew conducted experiments in Spacelab-2, a cooperative effort between NASA and ESA. They also deployed the Plasma Diagnostic Package (PDP), and retrieved it six hours later. Challenger landed at EAFB on August 6, 1985 after a mission duration of 190 hours, 45 minutes and 26 seconds.
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textj355
On the seventh flight of the shuttle Challenger, the crew deployed the Ejectable Plasma Diagnostic Package (PDP). This was the first free flyer to sample plasma away from the shuttle. PDP was retrieved on June 29, 1985, six hours after it was deployed.
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textj356
Scout 105 launched two 64.2kg navigation satellites for the United States Navy.
textj357
Scout 105 launched two 64.2kg navigation satellites for the United States Navy.
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textj358
The sixth Discovery flight was manned by Joe H. Engle, Richard O. Covey, James D. Van Hoften, William F. Fisher, and John M. Lounge. The crew deployed three communications satellites: AUSSAT-1 for Australia, ACS-1 for American Satellite Co., and Syncom IV-4 for Hughes Communications, Inc. Syncom IV-4 ceased functioning after reaching geosynchronous orbit. The crew repaired Syncom IV-3, launched earlier by STS 51-D. Discovery landed at EAFB on September 3, 1985 after a mission duration of 170 hours, 17 minutes and 42 seconds.
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textj359
Discovery deployed this 3,445.5kg communications satellite for Australia on its sixth flight.
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textj360
3,406.1kg ACS was a communications satellite for the American Satellite Company, deployed by Discovery on its sixth flight.
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textj361
This 6,894.7kg Synchronous Communications Satellite owned by Hughes and leased to the United States Navy was deployed by Discovery on its sixth flight. The satellite ceased functioning after it achieved geosynchronous orbit.
-end-
textj362
Atlas-Centaur launched this 1,996.7kg communications satellite for Intelsat, the third in a series of improved satellites.
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textj363
The first flight of the space shuttle Atlantis was a classified mission for the Department of Defense. The shuttle was manned by Karol J. Bobko, Ronald J. Grabe, Robert A. Stewart, David C. Hilmers and William A. Pailes. Atlantis landed at EAFB on October 7, 1985 after a mission duration of 97 hours, 44 minutes and 38 seconds.
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textj364
The eighth flight of Challenger was manned by Henry W. Hartsfield, Steven R. Nagel, Donnie Dunbar, James F. Buchli, Guion S. Bluford, Ernst Messerschmid (German) and Wubbo Ockels (Dutch). The mission carried Spacelab D-1, a cooperative effort between NASA and ESA. Spacelab was equipped with research facilities and experiments. The crew also deployed GLOMR, a Global Low Orbiting Message Relay Satellite. Challenger also carried MEA (Materials Experiment Assembly) for on-orbit processing of materials science experiment specimens. Challenger landed at EAFB on November 6, 1985 after a mission duration of 168 hours, 44 minutes and 51 seconds.
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textj365
267.6kg GLOMR, a Global Low Orbiting Message Relay Satellite was deployed on the eighth flight of the space shuttle Challenger. An earlier launch attempt on STS 51B had failed.
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textj366
This was the second flight of the shuttle Atlantis, manned by Brewster H. Shaw, Bryan D. O'Conner, Mary L. Cleave, Sherwood C. Spring, Jerry L. Ross, Rudolfo Neri Vela and Charles D. Walker. The mission deployed Morelos-B, a communications satellite for Mexico, Aussat-2, a communications for Australia, and Satcom, a satellite for RCA. The crew demonstrated construction in space when they manually assembled EASE (Experiment Assembly of Structures in Extravehicular Activity) and ACCESS (Assembly Concept for Construction of Erectable Space Structures). The mission also deployed OEX Target (Station Keeping Target) to conduct advanced station keeping tests. Atlantis landed at EAFB on December 3, 1985 after a mission duration of 165 hours, four minutes and 49 seconds.
-end-
textj367
Atlantis deployed this 4,539.6kg communications satellite for Mexico on its second flight.
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textj368
Atlantis deployed this 4,569..1 kg communications for Australia on its second flight.
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textj369
The space shuttle Atlantis deployed this 7,225.3kg satellite for RCA on its second flight.
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textj370
On its second flight the space shuttle Atlantis deployed this Orbiter Experiment, a digital autopilot software package designed to provide precise station keeping capabilities between space vehicles.
-end-
textj371
Scout 106 launched this dual payload instrumented test vehicle for the United States Air Force.
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textj372
Scout 106 launched this dual payload instrumented test vehicle for the United States Air Force.
-end-
textj373
This seventh flight of the space shuttle Columbia was manned by Robert L. Gibson, Charles F. Bolden jr., Franklin R. Chang-Diaz, George D. Nelson, Steven A Hawley, Robert J. Carter and Congressman C. William Nelson. The crew deployed Satcom, a communications satellite for RCA. They also evaluated the material science lab payload carrier and processing facilities. Columbia carried HHG-1 to accommodate GAS payloads. Columbia landed at EAFB on January 18, 1986 after a mission duration of 146 hours, three minutes and 51 seconds.
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textj374
2,225.3kg SATCOM, a communications satellite, was deployed by the shuttle Columbia on its seventh flight.
-end-
textj375
The ninth flight of the space shuttle Challenger was manned by Francis R. Scobee, Michael J. Smith, Judith A. Resnik, Ellison S. Onizuka, Ronald E. McNair, Gregory Jarvis and teacher S. Christa McAuliffe. Approximately 73 seconds after takeoff the shuttle exploded, killing all seven crew members.
-end-
textj376
2,103.3kg TDRS, a tracking and data relay satellite, was part of the cargo on the ninth flight of the space shuttle Challenger. Challenger exploded approximately 73 seconds after takeoff, killing all seven crew members.
-end-
textj377
Delta 178 launched this 840kg NOAA spacecraft to provide global weather coverage. The launch vehicle failed and GOES-G did not achieve orbit.
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textj378
Delta 180 launched this Department of Defense experiment.
-end-
textj379
Atlas 52E launched this 1,712kg environmental satellite for NOAA. The mission carried an ERBE instrument to complement information acquired by ERBS, and search and rescue instruments provided by Canada and France.
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textj380
Scout 107 launched this satellite to explore the atmospheric effect on electromagnetic propagation.
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textj381
This 1,128.5kg satellite was launched by Atlas-Centaur for the Department of Defense to provide communication among aircraft, ships, and ground stations.
-end-
textj382
Delta 179 launched this 840kg environmental satellite to provide systematic global weather coverage.
-end-
textj383
Delta 182 launched this 652kg communications satellite for Indonesia to provide coverage over Indonesia and the Asian countries.
-end-
textj384
Atlas-Centaur launched this 1,038.7kg satellite for the Department of Defense's world-wide communications system. Telemetry was lost after launch and the destruct signal was sent 70.7 seconds into flight. The probable cause of failure was a lightening strike to the launch vehicle.
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textj385
Scout 108 launched two, 64.5kg navigation satellites in a stacked configuration for the United States Navy.
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textj386
Scout 108 launched two, 64.5kg navigation satellites in a stacked configuration for the United States Navy.
-end-
textj387
Delta 181 launched this Strategic Defense Initiative Organization Payload.
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textj388
Scout 109 launched this 273kg spacecraft to explore the relationship between meteorological phenomena and solar activity. The mission was a cooperative effort between NASA and Italy.
-end-
textj389
Scout 110 launched two Transit navigation satellites in a stacked configuration for the United States Navy.
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textj390
Scout 110 launched two Transit navigation satellites in a stacked configuration for the United States Navy.
-end-
textj391
Scout 111 launched this improved Transit Navigation Satellite for the United States Navy.
-end-
textj392
Scout 112 launched two Transit navigation satellites in a stacked configuration for the United States Navy.
textj393
Scout 112 launched two Transit navigation satellites in a stacked configuration for the United States Navy.
-end-
textj394
1,712kg NOAA-H, an operational environmental satellite, was launched by Atlas 63E. Canada and France provided search and rescue instruments carried on the satellite.
-end-
textj395
The sixth flight for the space shuttle Discovery was manned by Frederick H. Hauck, Richard O. Covey, John M. Lounge, David C. Hilmers, and George D. Nelson. The mission deployed TDRS-3, a Tracking and Data Relay satellite. The crew also performed middeck commercial and scientific experiments. Discovery landed at EAFB on October 3, 1988 after a mission duration of 97 hours, zero minutes and 11 seconds.
-end-
textj396
This 2,224.9kg Tracking and Data Relay satellite was deployed by the space shuttle Discovery on its sixth flight.
-end-
textj397
The third flight of the space shuttle Atlantis was manned by Robert L. Gibson, Guy S. Gardner, Richard M. Mullane, Jerry L. Ross and William M. Shepherd. This was a classified mission for the Department of Defense. Atlantis landed at EAFB on December 6, 1988 after a flight duration of 105 hours, five minutes and 37 seconds.
-end-
textj398
The third flight of the space shuttle Atlantis was a Department of Defense classified mission.
-end-
textj399
The eighth flight of the space shuttle Discovery was manned by Michael L. Coats, John E. Blaha, James Bagian, James F. Buchli and Robert Springer. The crew deployed TDRS-D, a new Tracking and Data Relay Satellite, and performed commercial and scientific experiments. Discovery landed at EAFB on March 18, 1989 after a mission duration of 119 hours, 38 minutes and 52 seconds.
-end-
textj400
2,224kg TDRS-D, a new Tracking and Data Relay Satellite, was deployed by the shuttle Discovery on its eighth flight.
-end-
textj401
The fourth flight of the space shuttle Atlantis was manned by David M. Walker, Ronald J. Grabe, Mary L. Cleave, Mark C. Lee, and Norman E. Thagard. The crew deployed the Magellan spacecraft on a mission toward Venus, and performed commercial and scientific middeck experiments. Atlantis landed at EAFB on May 8 , 1989 after a mission duration of 96 hour, 56 minutes and 28 seconds.
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textj402
The space shuttle Atlantis deployed this three-axis, attitude controlled exploration spacecraft toward Venus to map that planet's surface.
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textj403
The ninth flight of the shuttle Columbia was a Department of Defense classified mission. The shuttle was manned by Brewster H. Shaw, Richard N. Richards, David C. Leestma, James C. Adamson, and Mark N. Brown. Columbia landed at EAFB on August 13, 1989 after a mission duration of 121 hours, zero minutes and eight seconds.
-end-
textj404
Atlas-Centaur launched this 1,863kg satellite for the United States Navy to provide communications among aircraft, ships and ground stations.
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textj405
The fifth flight of the shuttle Atlantis was manned by Donald E. Williams, Michael J. McCulley, Ellen Baker, Shannon N. Lucid, and Franklin Chang-Diaz. The mission deployed the Galileo spacecraft (an orbiter and an atmospheric entry probe) on a mission to Jupiter, and performed middeck commercial and scientific experiments. Atlantis landed at EAFB on October 23, 1989 after a mission duration of 119 hours, 39 minutes and 22 seconds.
-end-
textj406
On its fifth flight the space shuttle Atlantis deployed the Galileo spacecraft (an orbiter and an atmospheric entry probe) on a mission to explore Jupiter.
-end-
textj407
Delta 2 launched this 2,206kg spacecraft, a Cosmic Background Explorer, to obtain the most complete observations to date of the radiative content of the universe.
-end-
textj408
The ninth flight of the space shuttle Discovery was a classified Department of Defense mission. The shuttle was manned by Frederick Gregory, John E. Blaha, Manly L. Carter, Franklin S. Musgrave and Kathryn C. Thornton. Discovery landed at EAFB on November 28, 1989 after a mission duration of 120 hours, six minutes and 46 seconds.
-end-
textj409
The ninth flight of the space shuttle Discovery was a classified Department of Defense mission.
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textj410
The tenth flight of the space shuttle Columbia was manned by Daniel C. Brandenstein, James D. Wetherbee, Bonnie J. Dunbar, Marsha S. Ivins and G. David Low. The crew deployed Syncom IV-5, a geostationary communications satellite for the United States Navy, and also retrieved the Long Duration Exposures Facility (LDEF) which was deployed on an earlier mission. Columbia landed at EAFB on January 20, 1990 after a mission duration of 261 hours, zero minutes and 37 seconds.
-end-
textj411
6,953.4kg Syncom IV-5, a geostationary communications satellite for the United States Navy, was deployed on the tenth flight of the space shuttle Columbia.
-end-
textj412
The sixth flight of the shuttle Atlantis was a classified mission for the Department of Defense. The shuttle was manned by John D. Creighton, John H. Casper, David C. Hilmers, Richard M. Mullange and Pierre J. Thuot. Atlantis landed at EAFB on March 4, 1990 after a mission duration of 106 hours, 18 minutes and 22 seconds.
-end-
textj413
The sixth flight of the shuttle Atlantis was a classified Department of Defense mission.
-end-
textj414
This mission was the first demonstration of the launch vehicle Pegasus. Pegasus (a 50-foot rocket) was dropped from the wing of a B-52 aircraft over the Pacific Ocean. From there Pegasus launched the Pegsat satellite. This project is part of the Combined Release and Radiation Effects Satellite, a joint NASA/DOD program.
-end-
textj415
The tenth flight of the space shuttle Discovery was manned by Loren J. Shriver, Charles F. Bolden, Bruce McCandless, Steven A. Hawley and Kathryn D. Sullivan. This mission deployed the Edwin P. Hubble Space Telescope (HST) astronomical observatory. The HST was designed to work above the Earth's turbulent atmosphere to observe celestial objects at ultraviolet, visible and near-infrared wavelengths. The project was a cooperative effort between NASA and ESA. Discovery landed at EAFB on April 20, 1990 after a mission duration of 121 hours, 16 minutes and six seconds.
-end-
textj416
HST Edwin P. Hubble Space Telescope) is an 11,355.4kg astronomical observatory equipped with a large aperture optical telescope. HST was designed to operate above the Earth's turbulent and obscuring atmosphere to observe celestial objects at ultraviolet, visible and near-infrared wavelengths. HST was deployed on the tenth flight of the space shuttle Discovery.
-end-
textj417
Scout 113 launched two Multiple Access Communications Satellites (MACSATs) to provide world-wide store-and-forward message relay capability to Department of Defense users.
-end-
textj418
Scout 113 launched two Multiple Access Communications Satellites (MACSATs) to provide world-wide store-and-forward message relay capability to Department of Defense users.
-end-
textj419
Delta 2 launched this 2,421.1kg Roentgen Satellite (ROSAT). This satellite is an Explorer class satellite designed to carry a large X-ray telescope to study emissions from non-solar celestial objects. This program is an international cooperative with NASA, Germany and the United Kingdom.
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textj420
This Combined Release and Radiation Effects Satellite was launched by Atlas-Centaur. This satellite uses chemical releases to explore Earth's magnetic fields and the ionized gases that travel through them. This mission was a cooperative effort between NASA and the Department of Defense.
-end-
textj421
The eleventh flight of the shuttle Discovery was manned by Richard N. Richards, Robert D. Cabana, Bruce E. Melnick, William M. Shepherd, and Thomas D. Akers. The crew deployed the Ulysses spacecraft, a mission to study the poles of the Sun and the interplanetary space above and below the poles. The Ulysses mission was a joint effort of NASA and ESA. Discovery landed at EAFB on October 10, 1990 after a mission duration of 98 hours, ten minutes and three seconds.
-end-
textj422
Ulysses, a 2,0079.5kg spacecraft was deployed into heliocentric orbit on the eleventh flight of Discovery. The Ulysses spacecraft was designed to explore the Sun's poles and the interplanetary space above and below the poles. Ulysses was a joint NASA/ESA project.
-end-
textj423
The seventh flight of the space shuttle Atlantis was a classified mission for the Department of Defense. The shuttle was manned by Richard O. Covey, Robert C. Springer, Carl J. Meade, Frank L. Culbertson and Charles D. Gemar. Atlantis landed at KSC on November 20, 1990 after a mission duration of 117 hours, 54 minutes and 27 seconds.
-end-
textj424
The seventh flight of the space shuttle Atlantis was a classified mission for the Department of Defense.
-end-
textj425
The eleventh flight of the shuttle Columbia was manned by Vance D. Brand, John M. Lounge, Jeffrey A. Hoffman, Robert A. Parker, Guy S. Gardner, Ronald A. Parise and Samuel T. Durrance. The mission carried a shuttle-attached payload, Astro-1, designed to acquire high priority astrophysical data on a variety of celestial objects. Columbia landed at EAFB on December 11, 1990 after a mission duration of 215 hours, five minutes and seven seconds.
-end-
textj426
The eighth flight of the space shuttle Atlantis was manned by Steven R. Nagel, Kenneth D. Cameron, Linda M. Godwin, Jerome Apt and Jerry L. Ross. The crew performed an unplanned extravehicular activity to help deploy GRO's high gain antenna. The crew also demonstrated mobility aids to be used on Space Station Freedom. Atlantis landed at EAFB on April 11, 1991 after a mission duration of 143 hours, 32 minutes and 45 seconds.
-end-
textj427
GRO (Gamma Ray Observatory) is an unmanned astronomical observatory that is designed to image objects at gamma ray wavelengths. GRO was deployed on the eighth flight of the space shuttle Atlantis.
-end-
textj428
The twelfth flight of the space shuttle Discovery was manned by Michael L. Coats, Blaine L. Hammond jr., Guion S. Bluford, Gregory J. Harbaugh, Richard J. Hieb, Donald R. McMonagle and Charles L. Veach. On this mission the crew performed many maneuvers, among them: deploying canisters from the cargo bay; and releasing and retrieving a payload with the RMS, enabling the Department of Defense to obtain rocket plume observation data. Discovery landed at KSC on May 6, 1991 after a mission duration of 199 hours, 26 minutes and 17 seconds.
-end-
textj429
IBSS (Infrared Background Signature Survey) was deployed on the twelfth flight of Discovery. IBSS was designed to observe rocket plume firings at infrared wavelengths.
-end-
textj430
1,418kg NOAA-12, a third-generation operational spacecraft, was launched by Atlas-E. The purpose of NOAA-12 is to replace NOAA-10 as the morning satellite in NOAA's two polar weather observations satellite system.
-end-
textj431
This was the twelfth flight of the space shuttle Columbia, manned by Bryan D. O'Connor, Sydney M. Gutierrez, M. Rhea Seddon, James P. Bagian, Tamara E. Jerrigan, F. Drew Gaffney and Millie Hughes-Fulford. This was the first mission since Skylab to investigate the effects of weightlessness on humans. The data acquired on this mission will be used to plan longer shuttle missions and Space Station Freedom. Columbia landed at EAFB on June 14, 1991 after a mission duration of 218 hours, 15 minutes and 14 seconds.
-end-
textj432
Scout launched 96.7kg REX, a radiation experiment to explore the physics of electron density irregularities that disrupt transionospheric radio signals.
-end-
textj433
This was the ninth flight of the space shuttle Atlantis manned by John E. Blaha, Michael A. Baker, James C. Adamson, G. David Low and Shannon E. Lucid. The crew deployed a Tracking and Data Relay Satellite to keep the network of satellites which supports shuttle missions at full operational capacity. Atlantis landed at KSC on August 11, 1991 after a mission duration of 213 hours, 22 minutes and 27 seconds.
-end-
textj434
TDRS-E, a 2,226.9kg Tracking and Data Relay Satellite was deployed on the ninth flight of Atlantis. This is one of four communications satellites which supports shuttle missions at full operational capacity.
-end-
textj435
The thirteenth flight of the space shuttle Discovery was manned by John O. Creighton, Kenneth S. Reightler, Mark F. Brown, James F. Buchli and Charles D. Gemar. The mission deployed UARS (Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite) which will study the physical processes that act within and upon the stratosphere, mesosphere and the lower thermosphere. Discovery landed at EAFB on September 18, 1991 after a mission duration of 128 hours, 27 minutes and 51 seconds.
-end-
textj436
This 6,532.2kg Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite was deployed on the thirteenth flight of the space shuttle Discovery. UARS was designed to study the physical processes that act within and upon the stratosphere, mesosphere and the lower thermosphere.
-end-
textj437
This was the tenth flight for the shuttle Atlantis, manned by Frederick D. Gregory Terence T. Henricks, F. Story Musgrave, Mario Runco jr., James S. Voss and Thomas J. Hennen. The purpose of this mission was to gather data for the Department of Defense. The crew deployed DSP (Defense Support Program satellite). This mission was cut short when an inertial measurement unit malfunctioned on the sixth day. Atlantis landed at EAFB on December 1, 1991 after a mission duration of 166 hours, 52 minutes and 27 seconds.
-end-
textj438
DSP (Defense Support Program satellite) was deployed on the tenth flight of Atlantis. This mission was undertaken to gather data for the Department of Defense.
-end-
textj439
This was the fourteenth flight of the space shuttle Discovery, manned by Ronald J. Grabe, Steven S. Oswald, Norman E. Thagard, William F. Readdy, David C. Hilmers, Roberta L. Bondar and Ulf D. Merbold. An attached payload, ML-1 (International Microgravity Laboratory) explored the effects of microgravity on both living organisms and materials processes. Discovery landed at EAFB on January 30, 1992 after a mission duration of 193 hours, 15 minutes and 43 seconds.
-end-
textj440
The eleventh flight of the shuttle Atlantis was manned by Charles F. Bolden, Brian K. Duffy, Kathryn D. Sullivan, David C. Leestma, C. Michael Foale, Dirk D. Frimout and Bryon K. Lichtenburg. An attached payload, ATLAS 1 (the Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science) was designed to study science, solar science, space physics and astronomy. Atlantis landed at KSC on April 2, 1992 after a mission duration of 214 hours, ten minutes and 24 seconds.
-end-
textj441
This was the first flight of the space shuttle Endeavour. The shuttle was manned by Daniel C. Brandenstein, Kevin P. Chilton, Richard J. Hieb, Bruce E. Melnick, Pierre J. Thout, Kathryn C. Thornton and Thomas D. Akers. The crew performed an in orbit repair of the Intelsat VI communications satellite and redeployed it with a new kick motor. The crew also assembled a work station using Extravehicular Activity Methods (ASEM) while attached to the shuttle's cargo bay. Endeavour landed at EAFB on May 16, 1992 after a mission duration of 213 hours, 17 minutes and 38 seconds.
-end-
textj442
Delta II launched this 3,250kg Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer. The explorer was designed to investigate the extreme ultraviolet portion of the electromagnetic spectrum and to select EUV targets to create a map and catalog of these sources.
-end-
textj443
This was the twelfth flight for the space shuttle Columbia. The shuttle was manned by Richard N. Richards, Kenneth D. Bowersox, Bonnie J. Dunbar, Darl J. Meade, Ellen S. Baker and Lawrence J. Delucas. Columbia carried, as an attached payload, the first United States Microgravity Laboratory (USML-1). USML-1 studied materials science, fluid dynamics, biotechnology and combustion science. Columbia landed at KSC on July 9, 1992 after a mission duration of 331 hours, 30 minutes and four seconds.
-end-
textj444
This spacecraft was launched by Scout. SAMPEX was the first of the Small Explorer (SMEX) fleet. It carried four cosmic ray monitoring devices to study solar energetic particles, anomalous cosmic rays, galactic cosmic rays and magnetospheric electrons.
-end-
textj445
Delta II launched the 1,009kg spacecraft GEOTAIL. The purpose of this spacecraft is to study the geomagnetic tail of the magnetosphere. It will also study the plasma sheet and reconnection and neutral line formation to gain understanding of physical processes in the magnetosphere. The mission is a cooperative effort between the United States and Japan.
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textj446
This was the twelfth flight of the shuttle Atlantis, manned by Loren J. Shriver, Andrew M. Allen, Jeffrey A. Hoffman, Franklin R. Chang-Diaz, Claude Nicollier, Marsha S. Ivins and Franco Malerba. The crew deployed the European Retrievable Carrier (EURECA) for ESA. This was a platform designed to orbit the Earth for six months offering conventional services to experimenters. The crew also tested the Tethered Satellite System (TSS-1). The satellite project was a cooperative effort between the United States and Italy. Atlantis landed at KSC on August 8, 1992 after a mission duration of 191 hours, 16 minutes and seven seconds.
-end-
textj447
On its twelfth flight the space shuttle Atlantis deployed EURECA (European Retrievable Carrier) for ESA. This was a space platform designed to orbit the Earth for six months offering conventional services to experimenters.
-end-
textj448
The second flight of the space shuttle Endeavour was manned by Robert L. Gibson, Curtis L. Brown, Mark C. Lee, N. Jan Davis, Mae C. Jemison, Jerome Apt and Mamoru Mohri. Spacelab J was a Japanese attached payload. The Spacelab carried a series of 43 experiments to study the effects of producing new materials in the microgravity of space. Endeavour landed at KSC on September 20, 1992 after a mission duration of 190 hours, 30 minutes and 23 seconds.
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textj449
This US-French satellite was launched on the commercial vehicle Ariane 42P. The purpose of Topex/Poseidon was to explore the relationship between the Earth's oceans and its climate.
-end-
textj450
Titan III launched the Mars Observer on a trans-Martian trajectory. The Mars Observer was designed to achieve orbit of the planet and explore the surface for such data as elemental and mineralogical composition, topography, gravity field and magnetic field determination and climate conditions.
-end-
textj451
The thirteenth flight of the space shuttle Columbia was manned by James D. Wetherbee, Michael A. Akers, William M. Sheperd, Tamara E. Jernigan and Charles L. Veach. Columbia carried the Laser Geodynamic Satellite (LAGEOS) to obtain measurements of the crustal movement and gravitational field of the Earth. LAGEOS was a cooperative effort between the United States and Italy. USMP-2 (US Microgravity Payload-2) was carried in the shuttle's cargo bay. This is part of a series of payloads for experimentation and materials processing in low gravity. Columbia landed at KSC on November 1, 1992 after a mission duration of 236 hours, 56 minutes and 13 seconds.
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textj452
LAGEOS (Laser Geodynamic Satellite) was deployed on the thirteenth flight of the shuttle Columbia. The purpose of this satellite is to obtain measurements of the crustal movement and gravitational field of the Earth. LAGEOS was a cooperative effort between the United States and Italy.
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textj453
This satellite was launched by Scout for the Department of Defense.
-end-
textj454
The fifteenth flight of the shuttle Discovery was manned by David M. Walker, Robert Cabana, Guion S. Bluford, James Voss and Richard Clifford. This flight was a Department of Defense mission. Discovery landed at EAFB on December 9, 1992 after a mission duration of 175 hours, 19 minutes and 47 seconds.
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text104
Navy Lieutenant Commander Malcolm Scott Carpenter manned Mercury MA-7 to become the second American astronaut to achieve orbital flight. Carpenter's spacecraft, Aurora 7, was launched into space from Cape Canaveral, Florida by Atlas rocket booster 107D on May 24, 1962, just three months after John Glenn's historic flight.
Carpenter experienced a force of eight Gs as the Atlas rocket propelled his capsule to a speed of 17,532mph. He circled the Earth three times and traveled close to 81,250 miles before he returned to Earth. Carpenter experienced some minor discomfort from the heat of his space suit, but was not disturbed by weightlessness. There were some problems with the spacecraft's automatic attitude control system which caused Aurora 7 to splash down some 250 miles southwest of the planned location in the Caribbean. Viewers all over the world waited for 39 minutes until a search plane located him patiently floating in a life raft waiting to be picked up. Carpenter's mission lasted four hours, 56 minutes and five seconds.
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text138
On October 3, 1962 Navy Lieutenant Commander Walter M. Schirra rode Sigma 7 into space and completed six Earth orbits totaling nine hours, 13 minutes and 11 seconds. Atlas rocket booster 113D launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida, sent Mercury MA-8 on its flight. Sigma 7 reached a maximum velocity of 17,550mph during its orbit, and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean within 4.5 miles of the target site.
The flight of Sigma 7 was a remarkably untroubled one. Schirra was able to conserve attitude control fuel, avoiding the concern that had arisen on Carpenter's earlier flight in Aurora 7. Though Schirra's space suit, like Carpenter's, became uncomfortably hot, he managed to get his cooling system back under control by the second orbit.
Rather than scientific experimentation, the purpose of Sigma 7's flight was to check the performance of the Mercury spacecraft and to determine whether or not NASA should attempt longer flights. From all standpoints, Schirra's mission was a successful one. When he fired the retro-rockets for re-entry, he still had 80% of his attitude control fuel and had also managed to conserve electrical power and coolant water. Moreover he had experienced no ill effects from his extended period of weightlessness. The way was clear for an even longer manned mission.
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text3
A four-stage Jupiter-C rocket launched Explorer-01, the United States first successful earth
Satellite. The satellite was equipped with a Geiger-Mueller counter to measure cosmic radiation,
as well as temperature and micrometeorite impact and erosion gauges. Data transmitted by
Explorer-01 indicated that cosmic radiation in the satellite's orbit was only 12 times that
experienced on the Earth's surface, an acceptable level for human space travel.
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text4
Vanguard 1 was a 6.4 inch globe intended as a test for full-scale United States satellites. The
three-stage rocket that should have launched the satellite exploded on the launch pad.
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text5
A Jupiter-C rocket launched the United States third Earth satellite into orbit. A malfunction in the
fourth stage sent the satellite into an eccentric orbit which caused the satellite to pass through
the relatively dense upper atmosphere in its revolutions. This decreased the intended life of the
satellite. Explorer-03 was equipped with temperature and micrometeorite impact and erosion
gauges, as well as a tape recorder to measure cosmic-ray density. Explorer-01 and Explorer-03
gathered the data that led to the discovery of the Van Allen radiation belt.
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text7
The United States Army launched Explorer-04 on a Jupiter-C rocket from Cape Canaveral,
Florida. This satellite carried Geiger-Mueller tubes and scintillation counters to measure
radiation, including the areas of intense radiation called the Van Allen Belt, discovered by earlier
satellites.
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text10
Atlas-Score was as instrumented ARPA (Advanced Research Projects Agency) satellite
launched by the United States Air Force. The purpose of this satellite was to test the utility of
satellites in relaying radio communications. The satellite broadcast a pre-recorded message
conveying peace on Earth from President Eisenhower.
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text12
Vanguard-2 was launched by the United States Navy from Cape Canaveral, Florida. This 20-
inch, spherical satellite was man's first space weather observation station. It was designed to
observe the Earth's cloud cover.
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text13
The United States Air Force launched Discoverer-01 from Vandenberg Air Base, California. This
was the first satellite of the Discoverer series, and the first satellite to cross both poles in its orbit.
From this orbit, because of the Earth's rotation, every part of the Earth's surface came within
view of the satellite. Discoverer-01 which stopped transmitting radio signals in March, 1959,
probably fell into the Earth's atmosphere and burned.
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text15
A Thor-Agena rocket launched Discoverer-02 from Vandenberg Air Base, California. This
satellite was equipped with cosmic ray detection equipment, scientific and communications
equipment. A planned attempt to recover the reentry capsule failed.
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text17
A Thor-Agena rocket launched Discoverer-05 from Vandenberg Air Base, California, into a near-
polar orbit.
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text17
A Thor-Agena rocket launched Discoverer-06 from Vandenberg Air Base, California, into a near-
polar orbit.
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text23
The United States Air Force launched Discoverer-07 into a near-polar orbit from Vandenberg Air
Base, California. C-119 Flying Boxcars and United States Navy ships waited to recover a
capsule that was supposed to be ejected from the satellite; however, the ejection system
malfunctioned and the capsule failed to separate.
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text24
The United States Air Force launched Discoverer-08 with a Thor-Agena rocket from Vandenberg
Air Base, California. The satellite achieved a near-polar orbit and ejected a 27-inch capsule as
planned, but planes and ships failed to recover the capsule.
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text27
This experimental navigation satellite was launched from Cape Canaveral by an Air Force Thor-
Able-Star rocket. Transit-1B, a 36-inch sphere, achieved a successful orbit, though the orbit was
more elliptical than intended.
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text28
The Soviets launched the Spaceship Cabin (1960 Epsilon 1), a satellite reported by the Tass
news agency to be a pressurized cabin containing a "dummy space man." The satellite was
designed to check the ship's systems, and to verify safe flight and control mechanisms and
return procedures in preparation for manned flights. The pressurized cabin failed to drop back
into the atmosphere as planned, but Tass announced that useful observations had been
obtained.
-end-
text31
An Atlas-Agena rocket launched Midas-2 into a circular orbit. This was an experimental satellite
designed to test systems to detect surprise missile attacks.
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text32
Transit-2A was a 36-inch spherical satellite launched by a Thor-Able-Star rocket from Cape
Canaveral, Florida. It was an experimental navigation satellite for the United States Navy.
Transit-2A carried Greb-1, a solar radiation satellite, as a piggyback payload.
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text33
Greb-1 was a United States Naval Research Laboratory's Solar Radiation 1 satellite. It was
equipped with instruments to measure solar radiation. The satellite was carried by the Transit-2A
satellite as a piggyback payload.
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text34
A Thor-Agena-A rocket launched Discoverer-13 into a polar orbit from Vandenberg Air Base,
California. This satellite was the eighth satellite of the Discoverer series to achieve orbit. The
satellite ejected a 300-pound instrument capsule which was the first known payload to be
recovered. The capsule was picked up by helicopter from the Pacific Ocean.
-end-
text28
Discoverer-11 was launched into a polar orbit by a Thor-Agena-A rocket from Vandenberg Air
Base, California. It was designed to eject a payload capsule to test recovery systems. The
capsule ejected as planned, but recovery attempts were unsuccessful.
-end-
text36
Discoverer-14 was launched from Vandenberg Air Base, California. The satellite released a 300-
pound, instrument-laden capsule, which was recovered in mid-air by a C-119 aircraft. This was
the first mid-air recovery ever achieved, and only the second recovery in the eight attempts of
the Discovery series.
-end-
text38
Discoverer-15 was launched from Vandenberg Air Base, California, into a polar orbit. Like
previous Discoverer satellites, it released a 300-pound instrument capsule, but attempts to
recover the capsule failed.
-end-
text41
Discoverer-17 was launched by a Thor-Agena-B rocket booster from Cape Canaveral, Florida.
This satellite released a 300-pound instrument capsule which was recovered in mid-air over the
Pacific Ocean by a C119 aircraft. This was the second successful air recovery of a Discoverer
payload. The capsule contained radiation experiments.
-end-
text18
Discoverer-18 was launched by a Thor-Agena-B rocket booster from Vandenberg Air Base,
California. A C119 aircraft recovered the instrument capsule ejected by Discoverer-18 in mid-air,
the third successful attempt at an air recovery. The capsule contained several radiation
experiments.
-end-
text45
Discoverer-19 was launched into polar orbit by a Thor-Agena-B rocket booster from Vandenberg
Air Base, California. This satellite carried a recoverable capsule containing radiation experiments
and nuclear missile detection equipment.
-end-
text39
Courier-1B was a spherical communications satellite launched by a Thor-Able-Star rocket. The
satellite was designed to pick up and store messages from ground stations, then transmit the
messages to other ground stations on radio command.
-end-
text40
A four-stage Juno 2 rocket launched Explorer-08, a satellite equipped with instruments to
measure the concentration, distribution and energies of ions and electrons in the Earth's
ionosphere, in addition to equipment that measured the frequency, momentum, frequency and
energy of micrometeorites.
-end-
text46
Samos-2 was launched by an Atlas-Agena rocket. Samos-2 was an experimental reconnaissance
satellite, the first in the Samos series to achieve orbit.
-end
text49
The Soviets' "Heavy Satellite" was designed to achieve an Earth orbit and from this space
platform, launch a probe to Venus. This was the first attempt to use a satellite for launching a
spacecraft. The 643.5kg probe (Venus 1) was equipped with instruments to explore the
composition of space, to measure meteorite contacts and to observe the physical features of
Venus. The satellite successfully transmitted data until February 27, when Soviet scientists lost
radio contact with the spacecraft. The Venus 1 probe was the fourth spacecraft sent into
heliocentric orbit.
-end-
text51
Discoverer-20 was launched by a Thor-Agena-B rocket from Vandenberg Air Base, California.
This military satellite achieved a polar orbit, but its capsule payload, carrying radiation
measurement equipment, was not recovered.
-end-
text52
Discoverer-21 was launched into polar orbit by a Thor-Agena-B rocket assembly. The purpose of
this satellite was to test the ability to restart an Agena-B's engine in space by remote radio.
Discovery-21 carried test instruments for the Midas satellite series.
-end-
text57
Discoverer-23 was a military satellite launched by a Thor-Agena-B rocket. Controllers separated
its capsule payload early when they discovered that the satellite was wobbling. The capsule was
not recovered.
-end-
text61
Discoverer-25 was a military satellite launched by a Thor-Agena-B rocket. The satellite carried
propulsion, stability and guidance tests for the Samos series of satellites. Discoverer-25's
capsule payload carried metal samples to check the effects of space on common and rare
metals, as well as instruments to measure cosmic radiation and to study micrometeorites. The
capsule was recovered successfully.
-end-
text71
Discoverer-29 was a military satellite launched by a Thor-Agena-B rocket from Vandenberg Air
Base, California. The satellite ejected a capsule which carried test samples of human and animal
tissues and soil bacteria. The capsule was successfully recovered from the Pacific Ocean.
-end-
text72
Discoverer-30, a military satellite launched by a Thor-Agena-B rocket, ejected a capsule payload
which was recovered mid-air by a C-130B aircraft.
-end-
text74
Discoverer-31, a military satellite launched by a Thor-Agena-B rocket, failed to eject its payload
capsule. Contact with the satellite was lost on September 20. 1961.
-end-
text75
Discoverer-32, a military satellite launched by a Thor-Agena-B rocket, ejected a capsule payload
which was recovered in mid-air by a C-130B aircraft.
-end-
text77
Discoverer-34 was a military satellite launched into Earth orbit by a Thor-Agena-B rocket.
-end-
text78
Discoverer-35 was a military satellite launched into orbit by a Thor-Agena-B rocket. The
satellite's capsule payload carried organic tissue samples and metal particles in a test of the
effects of space on these samples. The capsule was successfully ejected on radio command,
and was recovered over the Pacific Ocean in mid-air by a C-130B aircraft.
-end-
text83
Discoverer-36 was a military satellite launched by a Thor-Agena-B rocket. The satellite ejected a
radio transmitter that was part of Project Oscar (Orbiting Satellite Carrying Amateur Radio), and
a military classified, instrumented capsule. The capsule was successfully recovered from the
Pacific Ocean.
-end-
text53
Transit-3B was an experimental navigation satellite launched with a Lofti satellite by a Thor-Able-
Star rocket from Cape Canaveral. The two satellites failed to separate as planned, but
succeeded in transmitting some useful data.
-end-
text56
This space probe was launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida by a Thor-Delta rocket. The
purpose of Explorer-10 was to study magnetic fields and electric currents in space.
-end-
text62
Transit-4A was an experimental navigation satellite launched by a Thor-Able-Star rocket. This
satellite carried the first atomic power source, the Snap 3 battery, into space.
-end-
text79
Transit-4B was an experimental navigation satellite launched by a Thor-Able-Star rocket for the
United States Navy. The satellite used an atomic generator to power two of its radios.
-end-
text66
Midas-3 was an experimental missile detection satellite launched by an Atlas-Agena-B rocket
into a polar orbit.
-end-
text76
Midas-4 (Missile Defense Alarm System) was a missile detection satellite launched by an Atlas-
Agena-B rocket. The satellite was equipped with instruments to detect heat from rocket exhaust
using infrared sensors.
-end-
text80
This Transit Research and Attitude Control (TRAAC) experiment was launched along with the
experimental navigation satellite Transit 4-B by a Thor-Able-Star rocket. The purpose of TRAAC
was to see if the Earth's gravitation could be used to stabilize and orient a satellite. It also carried
equipment to study the Earth's gravitational field.
-end-
text84
Ocsar-01 (Orbiting Satellite Carrying Amateur Radio) was a ten-pound radio transmitter launched
with Discoverer 36 as part of a worldwide network to provide communications capacity to
amateur radio operators.
-end-
text85
This satellite was launched from Point Arguello, California by the United States Air Force. It
carried classified test instruments. This was the first "secret" satellite launching.
-end-
text89
The United States Air Force launched Discoverer-37 from Vandenberg Air Base, California. The
satellite was put into a polar orbit by a Thor-Agena-B rocket.
-end-
text90
The United States Air Force launched Discoverer-38 from Vandenberg Air Base, California as a
test of their ability to restart an Agena-B in orbit, and to improve capsule ejection and recovery
techniques. After 65 orbits Discoverer-38 ejected its capsule, which was caught in mid-air over
the Pacific Ocean.
-end-
text92
The United States Air Force put a "secret satellite" into orbit from Point Arguello, California by
means of an Atlas-Agena-B rocket. This was one of several classified military satellite
launchings.
-end-
text95
The United States Air Force put a "secret satellite" into orbit from Point Arguello, California by
means of an Atlas-Agena-B rocket. This was one of several classified military satellite
launchings.
-end-
text101
The United States Air Force put two military "secret satellites" into orbit from Point Arguello,
California. One was launched by an Atlas-Agena-B rocket and the other was launched by a Blue
Scout rocket. These satellites were just two of several classified military satellite launchings.
-end-
text103
The United States Air Force put a "secret satellite" into polar orbit from Vandenberg Air Base,
California by means of a Thor-Agena-B rocket. This was one of several classified military
satellite launchings.
-end-
text109
The United States Air Force put a "secret satellite" into polar orbit from Point Arguello, California
by means of an Atlas-Agena-B rocket. This was one of several classified military satellite
launchings.
-end-
text110
The United States Air Force put a "secret satellite" into polar orbit from Vandenberg Air Base,
California by means of a Thor-Agena-B rocket. This was one of several classified military
satellite launchings.
-end-
text121
The United States Air Force launched a "secret satellite" into orbit from Point Arguello, California
by means of an Atlas-Agena-B rocket. This was one of several classified military satellite
launchings.
-end-
text125
The United States Air Force launched a "secret satellite" from Point Arguello, California by
means of a four stage Blue Scout rocket. This was one of several classified military satellite
launchings.
-end-
text139
The United States Air Force launched a "secret satellite" into polar orbit from Vanderberg Air
Base, California by means of a Thor-Agena-B. This was one of several classified military satellite
launchings.
-end-
text150
The United States Air Force launched a "secret satellite" into polar orbit from Vanderberg Air
Base, California by means of a Thor-Agena-B rocket. This was one of several classified military
satellite launchings.
-end-
text157
The United States Air Force launched a "secret satellite" into polar orbit from Vanderberg Air
Base, California by means of a Thor-Agena-B rocket. This was one of several classified military
satellite launchings.
-end-
text146
Anna-1B (a cooperative effort among the US Army, Navy, NASA and the US Air Force) was
launched by a Thor-Able-Star rocket from Cape Canaveral, Florida. This 36-inch spherical
geodetic satellite was designed to obtain measurements of the Earth's size and contours.
-end-
text159
Transit-5A was launched by a Blue Scout into polar orbit. The purpose of this navigation satellite
was to notify Navy ships and submarines of their exact positions at sea, but both the radio
receiver and transmitter malfunctioned.
-end-
text148
This satellite was put into orbit to be used as a launch platform in space for the Soviets' Mars-1
probe.
-end-
text178
A United States Air Force satellite released this Project West Ford communications experiment.
Fifty pounds of copper dipoles, each three-quarters of an inch long and thinner than a human
hair, were dispersed in a band extending 35,000 miles around the Earth and ranging from ten to
thirty-five miles wide. The band was used to relay radio signals. Scientists expected the band to
have a life of about five years, when solar radiation pressure would force the fibers into the lower
atmosphere where they would burn up harmlessly.
-end-
text162
The United States Air Force launched a "secret satellite" into orbit from Vandenberg Air Base,
California by means of a Thor-Agena-B rocket. This was one of several classified military
satellite launchings.
-end-
text163
The United States Air Force launched a "secret satellite" into orbit from Vandenberg Air Base,
California by means of a Thor-Agena-B rocket. This was one of several classified military
satellite launchings.
-end-
text165
The United States Air Force launched a "secret satellite" into orbit from Point Arguello, California
by means of a Blue Scout rocket. This was one of several classified military satellite launchings.
-end-
text161
This Soviet Moon probe broke up and fell out of orbit shortly after launching.
-end-
text193
The United States Air Force launched a "secret satellite" into orbit from Vandenberg Air Base,
California by means of a Thor-Agena-B rocket. This was one of several classified military
satellite launchings.
-end-
text206
The United States Air Force launched a "secret satellite" into orbit from Vandenberg Air Base,
California by means of a Thor-Agena-B rocket. This was one of several classified military
satellite launchings.
-end-
text208
The United States Air Force launched an unreported "secret satellite" from Point Arguello,
California. This was one of several classified military satellite launchings.
-end-
text210
The United Sates Air Force launched the Transit-5B satellite with two other piggyback satellites
from Vandenberg Air Base, California by means of a Thor-Able-Star rocket. The purpose of the
mission was undisclosed.
-end-
text216
The United States Air Force launched a "secret satellite" into orbit from Point Arguello, California
by means of an Atlas-Agena-B rocket. This was one of several classified military satellite
launchings.
-end-
text232
The United States Air Force launched a "secret satellite" into orbit from Vandenberg Air Base,
California by means of a Thor-Agena-B rocket. This was one of several classified military
satellite launchings.
-end-
text212
Vela-Hotel-1 and Vela-Hotel-2 were launched along with a hitchhiker satellite from Cape
Canaveral, Florida by an Atlas-Agena-B rocket. The purpose of the Vela-Hotel project was to
detect above ground nuclear explosions that would violate a treaty banning non-underground
explosions. The two Vela-Hotel satellites were put into similar orbits on opposite sides of the
Earth, both above the Van Allen radiation belt whose radiation could have interfered with the
detection systems.
-end-
text213
Vela-Hotel-1 and Vela-Hotel-2 were launched along with a hitchhiker satellite from Cape
Canaveral, Florida by an Atlas-Agena-B rocket. The purpose of the Vela-Hotel project was to
detect above ground nuclear explosions that would violate a treaty banning non-underground
explosions. The two Vela-Hotel satellites were put into similar orbits on opposite sides of the
Earth, both above the Van Allen radiation belt whose radiation could have interfered with the
detection systems.
-end-
text234
The United States Air Force launched a "secret satellite" with another satellite intended to obtain
data on solar storms. The two satellites were launched from Vandenberg Air Base, California.
-end-
text236
The United States Air Force launched Secor-1 (Sequential Collation of Range), a new kind of
Army mapping satellite to be used to locate targets for intercontinental ballistic missiles.
-end-
text258
The Tass news agency reported that this steerable spacecraft was launched to test
maneuverability and study problems involved in space rendezvous procedures.
-end-
text305
A Saturn-1 rocket launched this second test model of the Apollo spacecraft. The spacecraft
orbited for four days before reentering and burning up in the Earth's atmosphere.
-end-
text334
The United States Air Force completed its first successful launch of a Titan-3A rocket. This
rocket's third stage, Transtage-2, achieved orbit and then launched a dummy satellite into a
separate orbit.
-end-
text349
Transtage-3, the third stage of a Titan-3A rocket, was launched by the United States Air Force
from Cape Kennedy. The purpose of this mission was to test the ability of the Titan-3A to
maneuver and change orbits. The test was a complete success. The Transtage-3 also succeeded
in launching a LES (Lincoln Experimental Satellite) from its third orbit.
-end-
text350
LES-1 (Lincoln Experimental Satellite) was carried into space by Transtage-3, the third stage of
a Titan-3A rocket. The satellite was intended as a test of communications satellite equipment.
LES-1's propulsion system malfunctioned after launch and the satellite did not achieve its
planned orbit, but all three of its experiments were operative.
-end-
text351
A Saturn-1 rocket launched from Cape Kennedy carried Pegasus-1 into orbit. This instrumented
satellite was designed to gather data on the size, velocity and distribution of meteoroids.
Pegasus-1 was the third largest satellite launched, with a wing span of 96 feet.
-end-
text379
Ranger-9 was the last of the lunar probes in the Ranger series. The purpose of the Ranger
spacecraft was to photograph the lunar surface to try and locate possible lunar landing sites.
Ranger-9 transmitted photos from as little as three-quarters of a mile above the Moon, capturing
objects less than ten inches across, before impacting the Moon.
-end-
text383
An Atlas-Agena rocket launched SNAP-10 (Systems for Nuclear Auxiliary Power) into a polar
orbit from Vandenberg Air Base, California. This was the first nuclear reactor ever sent into
space. The purpose of the mission was to test the ability of a nuclear reactor to produce power in
space for a year.
-end-
text385
The Early Bird satellite was the world's first commercial satellite. It was launched by a TAD
rocket booster into synchronous orbit for Comsat. The purpose of this satellite was to provide
communications between North America and Europe, allowing television, telegraph and phone
linkages. Early Bird was the first satellite in a worldwide system of satellites for Comsat.
-end-
text409
The United States Air Force launched its Titan-3C rocket for the first time, placing its final stage,
Transtage-5 and a 21,000 pound payload into Earth orbit. The Titan-3C was the world's most
powerful rocket to date, and the purpose of this mission was to test the new rocket's ability to
carry heavy payloads. Transtage-5 achieved successful orbit.
-end-
textusaf1
The specific function of this launch has not been released. However, the US Air Force often
launched spy, communications, global positioning and SDI satellites on their own vehicles.
-end-
text557
This was the target Agena vehicle for rendezvous with Gemini 11.
-end-
text558
Charles Conrad jr. and Richard Gordon jr. were lifted into orbit aboard their Gemini 11 capsule
by a Titan II booster. Once in space, they began their rendezvous activities. Their target was an
Agena booster. After one orbit, the men managed to dock with the Agena. Once docked, both
craft were fired into a 1,368km orbit above the Earth.
Later in the flight, Astronaut Gordon made a 2 hour 43 minute space walk where he attached a
tether from the Agena to the Gemini docking bar. With the space walk over, the men uncoupled
the two craft the remaining link being the tether. Two complete revolutions were made with the
craft attached in such a manner.
The flight, of 44 orbits, lasted 71 hours, 17 minutes and 8 seconds before splashdown east of
Miami in the Atlantic.
-end-
text578
This was the target Agena vehicle for rendezvous with Gemini 12.
-end-
text579
A Titan II rocket lifted James Lovell jr. and Edwin Aldrin into Earth orbit in Gemini 12. After
three orbits, the crew maneuvered the Gemini capsule to rendezvous with the target Agena
vehicle.
Aldrin performed a record 5 hour 30 minute space walk. As well, the first solar eclipse was
photographed from orbit.
After completing 59 orbits, Aldrin and Lovell splashed down in the Atlantic after 94 hours, 34
minutes and 31 seconds.
-end-
text591
Luna 13, launched from an Earth parking orbit, reached a soft-landing near the Ocean of Storms
Dec. 24. The probe folded out two arms one of which was a soil density meter while the other
measured radiation density. Its television camera, revealing details as small as 1.5mm,
provided six days of panoramic sweeps of the lunar surface. Soviet researchers concluded that
moon soil was as dense as medium density Earth soil.
-end-
text948
Leonid Kizim, Vladimir Solovyov and Oleg Atkov, launched aboard Soyuz T-10, boarded the
Salyut-7 space station on Feb. 8. Oleg Atkov, a doctor, performed daily medical tests on all
members. He was the first Soviet doctor in space for almost 20 years, and he was to take
advantage of the opportunity to study, first hand, the effects of weightlessness.
In April, Kizim and Solovyov began a series of five space walks to repair the oxidizer fuel leak
left by the previous mission. Finally, in Aug., after special tools had been designed and
transported to the station, Kizim and Solovyov completely repaired the errant oxidizer.
These activities were interrupted in April as Soyuz T-11 docked with the station bringing Yuri
Malashev, Rakesh Sharma and Gennadi Strekhalov aboard. During the visit, eleven passes
over India were performed making it possible for Earth resources studies of the country.
The second visit occurred in July on Soyuz T-12. Vladimir Dzanibekov, Igor Volk and Svetlana
Savitskaya docked with Salyut-7 joining the crew. Savitskaya performed a lengthy space walk
where she demonstrated the use of an electron hand welder.
The original Salyut mission departed the station after 237 days in space having accepted two
visiting missions and five unmanned Progress ferries.
-end-
text956
Vladimir Dzhanibekov and Viktor Savinyikh, flown aboard the Soyuz T-13 capsule, were to
rescue the dead Salyut-7 station. The solar panels on the station had lost their lock on the Sun.
Water had somehow leaked into the cabin flooding it and freezing. Mission control feared that
the station was completely lost. Docking manually with the help of lasers and tracking
computers.
After docking, the men took ten days, retreating every few minutes into the Soyuz capsule for
warmth, to bring the station back into basic order. Destroyed components were replaced. Both
cosmonauts performed a five hour space walk to add more solar panels. Finally, the craft was
fully restored.
Their primary objective finished, the men now went to work on Earth studies observations
stopping to unload the Progress-24 freighter.
On July 22, Cosmos 1669, a Star-module like substation, arrived in orbit and docked with the
station. It carried its own scientific equipment and was used by the cosmonauts in their
observations and experiments.
Soyuz T-14, carrying Georgi Grechko, Alexander Volkov and Vladimir Vasyutin, docked with the
Salyut station Cosmos 1669 already jettisoned. These men performed experiments in materials
processing, astrophysics and Earth studies. One week later, Georgi Grechko and Vladimir
Dzhanibekov undocked from the station and returned to Earth.
Viktor Savinyikh, Alexander Volkov and Vladimir Vasyutin were left aboard the station. Cosmos
1686 docked with the station Oct. 3. It was a Star module with its own accommodations, green
houses, laboratories. The flight, however, had to be cut short because Vasyutin became listless.
He spent hours and hours simply staring at the passing Earth. Ground controllers immediately
ordered the crew back to Earth Nov. 21.
-end-
text961
The Mir space station is the second generation Soviet/Russian manned space platform. It
contains only the control mechanisms and living quarters for the station. Individual research
stations, called Kvant modules, must be flown up to the station and attached to one of the six
docking rings. Amenities on the station are much more accommodating than that of the Salyut
stations. Each cosmonaut receives their own bunk, couch and table.
-end-
text962
Cosmonauts Leonid Kizim and Vladimir Solovyov were the first to visit the Mir space station.
They docked their Soyuz T-15 capsule without problem. Once on board the station, their job was
to straighten out any problems that may have occurred during the launch of the station.
On May 5, the cosmonauts left Mir for the Salyut-7 station. There, they would perform an
elaborate space walk erecting an aluminum frame around the old station. The space walk was
completed three days later when the trusses were welded together.
Back at Mir, a new space craft had arrived called Soyuz TM. This was an automatic test flight of
the modern systems aboard the new capsule. Completely updated navigation, power and
communications systems were taken advantage of in this modernized transport. It returned to
Earth flawlessly five days after its arrival.
Kizim and Solovyov returned to Mir spending three more weeks there. After 125 days in orbit,
the men returned to Earth.
The final part of the mission was accomplished in August when the Salyut-7 station was fired into
a five year waiting orbit.
-end-
text969
The Kvant modules, each equipped with its own research facilities, are a direct descendant of
the Star modules which served the Salyut stations. The 18,900kg modules are designed to dock
with the Mir space station and provide it with the scientific equipment it lacks.
-end-
text967
Yuri Romanenko and Alexander Laveikin, aboard the Soyuz TM-2 capsule, docked with the Mir
space station and awaited the docking of the Kvant module launched Mar. 31.
Problems with the Kvant module developed early. After six days of rendezvous maneuvers, the
Kvant module attempted to dock, but the automatic control system failed as the module closed in
at 200m. Ground controllers felt that the module was out of control, but attempts were made
culminating, finally, with the soft docking of the module with Mir. However, the transfer tunnel
between the two craft was not hermetically sealed. On April 12, the two men performed a space
walk to discover the problem. They forced the two craft apart finding that a dirty rag had
prevented the full docking. At last, the Kvant and Mir were one.
At the end of April, Progress 29 docked with Mir providing food and other necessities. Included
among the cargo were solar panels that were needed to power the station as well as the Kvant
module. At this point, the Mir station had four docked rings making it the first constructed
orbiting station.
Laveikin and Romanenko performed a space walk to install the new panels. Now the Kvant was
fully operational, but the Korund materials processing furnace aboard Mir could be used too.
On July 24, Viktor Viktorenko, Alexander Alexandrov and Mohammed Faris joined the waiting
crew on Mir from their Soyuz TM-3 capsule. But, Alexander Laveikin's heart had shown signs of
serious problems, and ground control ordered him, Faris and Viktorenko down leaving
Romanenko and Alexandrov aboard the station.
Soyuz TM-4, carrying Vladimir Titov, Musar Manarov and Anatoli Levchenko, joined the station.
This was the first replacement crew of an orbiting station. Dec. 29 marked the end of
Romanenko's, Alexandrov's and Levchenko's flight.
Progress-34 docked with the station and was unloaded by the remaining two cosmonauts. Titov
and Manarov, on Feb. 26, performed a four hour and 25 minute space walk repairing a faulty
solar panel and removing pieces of Mir for return to Earth. Progress 35 and 36 were accepted
and unloaded by the men whose schedule consisted of mainly Earth studies experiments.
Viktor Savinyikh, Anatoli Solovyov and Alexander Alexandrov joined the crew of Soyuz TM-4
from their TM-5 capsule. The cosmonauts performed a variety of experiments that included
remote sensing, materials processing, biology and physics. These men returned to Earth, June
17, aboard the TM-4 capsule taking with them computer disks, manufactured alloys and samples
of experiments. Titov and Manarov disengage the TM-5 from the Kvant docking port and place
it at the forward axial port in preparation for the docking of the next Progress.
In Soyuz TM-6 on Aug. 31, Vladimir Lyakhov, Valeri Poliakov and Abdol Ahad Mohmand docked
with the Mir station. Poliakov, a doctor, needed to check the health of Titov and Manarov. They
were found to be in good condition and able to complete their stay. The crew of TM-6, except
Poliakov, left the station Sept. 6. However, it wasn't until the seventh that the craft actually
reentered the atmosphere. A series of computer malfunctions prevented the proper reentry burn.
Progress-38 arrived Sept. 12 carrying supplies and replacement parts for the Anglo-Dutch X-Ray
telescope that the Mir station carried. In a space walk lasting four hours and 12 minutes, the
cosmonauts repaired the telescope
Alexander Volkov, Sergei Krikalev and Jean-Loup Chretien, aboard Soyuz TM-7, docked with
the Mir complex Nov. 28. The first major activity that was performed was a six hour space walk
to experiment with a French designed lattice work. As well, Chretien and Volkov erected a
panel of materials to be tested in the environment of space, and, they tested a new type of solar
panel developed by the French. The health of the resident cosmonauts was checked using a
French echocardiograph and radiological apparatus.
Titov and Manarov, whose flight lasted 366 days, 18 hours and 7 minutes, along with Chretien
returned to Earth in the TM-5 capsule.
Volkov and Krikalev, now the resident cosmonauts, were joined by Progress-39 on Dec. 27.
Food, propellant and New Year gifts were placed in the freighter. On Feb. 12, Progress-40
supplied the cosmonauts with more materials including experimental equipment. On the 24th,
the Progress lifted the station into higher orbit where form remembering material could be better
tested. Progress-41 docked with the station Mar. 18 bringing further supplies. This freighter
pushed the complex into an even higher orbit.
Finally, on April 26, cosmonauts Volkov, Krikalev and Poliakov left the station after placing it into
a hibernation orbital pattern.
-end-
text1003
Luna-15, the third generation of Soviet lunar probes, entered a slowly descending orbit around
the Moon. It was planned to soft land and scoop up lunar rocks to be returned to Earth.
However, the craft crashed into the surface. This probe performed its orbit during the
spectacular events of the American Apollo-11 mission.
-end-
text1009
Venera-7, a 495kg interplanetary probe, was placed on course to Venus from Earth parking orbit.
The craft plummeted into the Venusian atmosphere Dec. 15 and sent a signal back to Earth for
35 minutes. Researchers felt that they had lost contact with the probe, that it had disentegrated in
the atmosphere. But, a faint signal was finally heard lasting 23 minutes. The probe had soft
landed and transmitted the conditions of the planet. Its pressure was 90 atmospheres and 475
degree celsius temperature.
-end-
text1010
Luna-16 entered lunar orbit Sept. 16. It had flown almost perfectly from its Earth parking orbit to
the Moon and had begun its search for a suitable soft landing site. It followed the slowly
descending orbit of Luna-15, but this time there was no crash. The craft, having picked the right
site on the 20th, fired its retrorockets and landed smoothly. Almost instantly, a robotic drill arm
shot out of the side of the craft and began softening the surface. It then scooped the loose soil
into the waiting container; 100g were collected. On the 21st, after ascertaining the proper
coordinates, the probe propelled itself off the Moon and back towards Earth. The soil container
was retrieved and the soil samples analyzed.
-end-
text1011
Following the same controlled descent orbit to the lunar surface, Luna-17 touched down on the
Moon Nov. 12. Instead of collecting material, the craft opened and extended two ramps for
inside the craft was a Lunokhod, an eight-wheeled, 756kg moon rover. Equipped with two
television eyes, the craft was ordered to scurry across the lunar surface. Onboard the robot were
a soil density sampler, an X-ray soil composition analyzer, an X-ray and a cosmic radiation
telescope. The astronauts of Apollo-15 remarked that they had passed over the slowly roving
robot in their command module. On Oct. 4, 1971, Lunokhod's isotope power source finally failed
after nearly a year of exploration.
-end-
text1015
Luna-20 soft landed on the side of a lunar mountain in the region of Apollonius Feb. 21. It
immediately began drilling into the lunar surface scooping up nearly 50g of soil. The craft shot
back the samples which were retrieved and analyzed.
-end-
text1021
Luna 21, at 1,814kg, carried the second Lunokhod robotic probe. On Jan. 16, Luna 21 set down
in the Sea of Serenity. It opened its doors and lowered its ramps. With a mass of 100kg more
than Lunokhod 1, the second, equipped with all the previous experiments including a photometer,
transmitted 86 panoramic pictures, 80,000 television images and traveled 37km before failing.
-end-
text1022
Launched from an Atlas-Centaur rocket, the 259kg interplanetary probe encountered Jupiter and
went on to fly by Saturn. The craft's imaging system provided the first detailed images of the
Rings of Saturn.
-end-
text1025
The four Mars probes, 4-7, were to be teamed together in a sophisticated soft-landing, mapping
exercise. Mars 4 and 5 were orbiters while 6 and 7 were landers. Mars 4's course correcting
engines failed to fire shooting it past the planet. The landing probe of Mars 7 separated early
sending it 1,300km past the Martian surface. Mars 6 experienced some success when the
landing probe transmitted back 150 seconds of information then falling silent before touch down.
Only Mars 5 performed adequately photographically mapping the surface of the planet and
testing the atmosphere.
-end-
text1034
The 5,033kg interplanetary Venera 9 probe, on Oct. 20, ejected its lander into the atmosphere
of Venus. The lander was inside a protective shield which was jettisoned at 65km. Once done,
the metallic parachute opened and slowed the descent of the craft. The parachute was
discarded and a disk brake device complete with shock absorbers saved the craft from crushing
on impact. Cameras were immediately activated and transmitted images back to Earth via the
orbiter. The images were surprisingly sharp of the 2,500m plateau where the craft rested.
The twin Venera 10 probe soft landed Oct. 25 2,200km away from its sister. It rested at normal
Venus level and recorded a pressure of 92 atmospheres and 465 degree celsius temperature. Its
pictures were very sharp as well.
-end-
text1043
Luna 24 touched down on the surface of the Moon Aug. 19. in the Sea of Crises. It immediately
started to drill into the lunar surface some 2m. It sent back to Earth 170g of Moon soil when it
launched its return vehicle.
-end-
text1066
Venera 13 and 14, both 700kg, were designed as soft landers on the surface of Venus. The craft
performed excellently providing soil analysis and high quality images of the Venusian surface.
The soil was found to be 45 percent silica oxide, 4 percent potassium oxide, 7 percent calcium
oxide and basalt. As well, the images revealed that the sky of Venus was orange instead of
blue.
-end-
text1069
The Soviet Union launched the Bhaskara Earth resources satellite manufactured in India. It
encompassed two television cameras, a micrometeorite impact sensor and three microwave
radiometers.
-end-
text1087
The 4,000kg Venera 15 and 16 orbiters radar mapped the Venusian surface as well as provided
spectral maps. They operated for a full year working in tandem and covering 120 million square
kilometers.
-end-
text1111
Vega 1 and 2 were the most sophisticated attempts at studying Venus. During the descent of the
sister craft's landers, a balloon was ejected into the atmosphere. The balloons had a diameter of
3.4m and carried atmospheric monitoring instruments. Vega 1's balloon was caught in a variety
of atmospheric anomalies and stayed aloft for 47 hours transmitting continuously before entering
the daylight sector of the planet and exploding. Both landers performed more soil experiments
and photographic surveys.
The orbiters left Venus and set course to intercept Halley's Comet which was achieved in Mar.
1986. Images of the comet were transmitted back to ground controllers.
-end-
text1137
This was a test flight of the Energiya heavy lift booster. The most powerful rocket ever built, the
booster failed at its third stage letting its cargo burn up over the Pacific. This rocket is capable of
placing 100 tons into low Earth orbit. As well, it serves as the launch craft for the Russian
shuttle, Buran.
-end-
text1151
Phobos 1 and 2 were set on course for the Martian inner moon named Phobos. There they
would analyze the moon for possible geologic resources. Both would aim a high powered laser
at the moon and spectrally analyze the burn. A hopper would be ejected out onto the surface to
perform on-site soil analysis. Phobos 1 was lost due to an operator error while Phobos 2 was lost
for reasons unknown.
-end-
text1160
This mission served as an unmanned test flight of the Russian space shuttle Buran. Remarkably
similar in design to the American shuttle, this orbiter lacks engines and is boosted into space by
the Energiya rocket. It also employs a sophisticated microwave control system allowing
completely automated reentries.
-end-
text1187
Zond 7 was an unmanned mission to fly around the Moon. Minutes after launch, the craft
exploded. From this accident, it was deemed that the Proton booster was completely unreliable.
-end-
text1191
Mars 2 and 3 were sister interplanetary probes set for soft landing on the Martian surface. After
a successful orbital insertion for both craft, they ejected their landers into the Martian
atmosphere which at the time was experiencing a tremendous sand storm. The lander from
Mars 2 was blown to pieces while the Mars 3 lander did indeed survive. It began its
transmissions after touch down then fell silent for reasons unknown.
-end-
text265
Apollo 1, commanded by Gus Grissom with Edward H. White and Rodger B. Chaffee, caught fire during a routine capsule training session. Filled completely with pure oxygen, the capsule was engulfed in flames when a circuit with a short was activated. The astronauts died instantly. Pure oxygen was never again used as capsule air. Indeed, NASA reorganized their safety and procurement systems after this accident.
-end-
text1044
This atmospheric flight was a test of the gliding capacity of the Space Transportation System.
-end-
dav21044
This atmospheric flight was a second test of the gliding capacity of the Space Transportation System.
-end-
dav31044
This atmospheric flight was a third test of the gliding capacity of the Space Transportation System.
-end-
dav41044
This atmospheric flight was a fourth test of the gliding capacity of the Space Transportation System.
-end-
dav51044
This atmospheric flight was a fifth test of the gliding capacity of the Space Transportation System.
-end-
text1189
Georgi Shonin and Valeri Kubasov were launched into orbit aboard their Soyuz 6 capsule and
awaited the arrival of Soyuz 7 and 8. Aboard 7 were Anatoli Filipchenko, Vladislav Volkov and
Viktor Gorbatko. Vladimir Shatalov and Alexei Yeliseyev flew in the Soyuz 8 capsule. Several
tests of welding devices were performed by the crew of Soyuz 6, and all craft performed
rendezvous maneuvers before reentering the atmosphere.
-end-
text1007
The Japanese, once heavily dependent on the US for space technology, have been steadily forging their own space systems. Their series of unmanned rockets have been highly successful in launching their commercial and research satellites.
-end-
text1037
China's space program was borne out of its development of intercontinental ballistic missiles. Primarily, the Chinese use their rockets to launch their own domestic research satellites, but have recently pushed into the growing commercial satellite launch business.
-end-
text1105
Arianespace has become a highly successful contender in the commercial launch business. It launches the majority of Western commercial satellites a sector once dominated by NASA. The program is administered by the European Space Agency.
-end-
text1158
Israel has developed, with the cooperation of the US, several rocket boosters which have the capability of placing payloads into orbit. However, most believe that the boosters are used in the Israeli intercontinental ballistic missile program.
-end-
text1055
India has developed a series of boosters capable of launching payloads into orbit. However, the systems are primarily used in their development of an intercontinental ballistic missile.
-end-
text1056
Leonid Popov and Valeri Ryumin docked their Soyuz-35 capsule with the Salyut 6 space station on April 9. The Salyut station was in need of repairs. Water tanks, clocks, batteries, air filters were all changed. Progress 8 and 9 carried the replacement parts for these repairs aloft. A new biological centrifuge was installed.
Soyuz 36 joined the active crew adding Valeri Kubasov and Bartalan Farkas into the station. The men stayed for seven days carrying out 21 experiments before returning to Earth in the Soyuz 35 capsule.
On June 5, a new version of the Soyuz capsule called T-2 was enroute to rendezvous with the station. Yuri Malashev and Vladimir Aksenov, while completing maneuvers, found that their Argon computer had broken down. They needed to dock manually. This done, they stayed aboard the station for three days.
On July 23, Viktor Gorbatko and Pham Tuan joined Popov and Ryumin on the station. Vietnam was observed closely for defoliation effects of war time as well as other Earth studies observations. These men returned to Earth in Soyuz 36.
Yuri Romanenko and Arnaldo Tamayo Mendez joined the resident crew of the station. Several Cuban designed experiments were conducted before the men returned to Earth.
Finally, after spending 185 days in space, Popov and Ryumin returned from the station.
-end-
texttm-8
The Soyuz TM-8 capsule docked with the dormant Mir Sept. 7 after the craft had pushed into a
high waiting orbit by the visiting Progress. In fact, the Progress was of a new design taking
advantage of the improvements of the Soyuz TM capsules. Alexandr Viktorenko and Alexandr
Serebrov were the two cosmonauts placed aboard.
On Dec. 9, the men were joined by the Kvant-2 module after computer malfunctions with its
automatic docking systems were overcome. It carried a new microgravity manufacturing plant
and an American microgravity experiment.
During their stay, the cosmonauts performed five spacewalks testing the new Ikar YMK. Similar
to the American Manned Maneuvering Unit, the "bicycle" allowed the cosmonauts to move
independently of the station or other spacecraft.
Viktorenko and Serebrov returned to Earth after six months Feb. 19.
-end-
txtven12
Venera 12 arrived first at Venus Dec. 21, 1978 and ejected its lander into the Venusian atmosphere. Its lander returned information relating to atmospheric components and pressure, but was unable to transmit images because of lander malfunction. Venera 11, arriving Dec. 25, launched two landers into the planet's atmosphere both of which returned atmospheric component and pressure data. Image transmission for both landers failed.
-end-
text1007a
These two interplanetary probes were Japanese missions to study the Halley's Comet flyby.
-end-
text1119
This ESA project past closest to Halley's Comet during the comet flyby. It came within 375 miles of the cosmic snow ball.
-end-
explo
The spectacular sequence of explosions shown in the first video clip occurred in the late 1940's and early 1950's. The second video clip is of the Vanguard 1 explosion which occurred on December 6, 1957. The third video clip is of the ill fated Challenger disaster on the 28th of January, 1986.
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dav21197
President Kennedy banters with the press.
-end-
text1197
President Kennedy announces plans to send men to the moon.
